Nature

The favorable natural and geographical conditions of Azerbaijan caused the settling of people on its territory.

Ancient writers Herodot (5^th century B.C.), Polibey (200 B.C-120 B.C), Strabon (64/63- B.C-23/24 A.M), Claudi Ptolemy (approximately 90-160) and provided coverage of geographical borders of Azerbaijan, rivers, inhabited regions, tribes, residing in the country, the Caspian Sea in a number of their creative works. Later Arabian geography scientists and travelers Ibn Khordadbeh (820/826-912/913), Abu-Ishaq Isterkhi (appr. 820-934), Azerbaijani scientist Mohamed Nakhchivani (late 13^th-mid 14^th centuries), Iranian scientists Reshidaddin Fazlullah (1247-1317) wrote about the economics of Azerbaijan, its administrative division, mountains, and rivers, the distances between them, trade roads, etc. Albanian (Caucasus) historian Musa Kalantarli (7-8^th century) in his work “The History of Albania” described Albania as a world-famed country with rich nature and dense population, fertile soils, beautiful gardens, and green plains. The world map (1459) of Venetian F.Maurov, the maps of Alsharif (1601), German scientist and traveler A. Olear), as well as the map “East Transcaucasia and the Caspian Sea”, drawn in 1720 and issues in 1723 by order of Peter the First included the inhabited regions, lakes and rivers of Azerbaijan.

Azerbaijani geographical scientist Abdurrashid Bakuvi expressed his views on the climate of Azerbaijan, the nature of Baku, and oil production in this town, Haji Zeynalabdin Shirvani, and Abbasgulu Agha Bakikhanov shared their opinions on the geographical features of our country. V. Abikh, I.Figurovsky, A.Zakharov, and others made a great contribution to the exploration of the territory of Azerbaijan as well. A complex exploration of Azerbaijan started in the period of the Soviet Union when differently scaled maps were issued and geographical atlases were drawn. The Academy of Science of Azerbaijan played an important role in a comprehensive study of the territory of our country.

The historical and geographical position of the Azerbaijan Republic

Ancient Azerbaijan situated in Central Asia and covered the area from the southeastern Caucasus to the mountain area south and south-east of Lake Urmia. Its area exceeds 200 thousand km².

Entire Azerbaijan situates in the northern hemisphere in approximately the same latitude as Spain, Greece, Turkey, China, Korea. The strategically important roads leading from Europe to Central and Eastern Asia passed through Azerbaijan.

The territory of the republic extends 400 km from north to south, and 500 km from west to east, and locates between latitude 38’25”-41’55” North and longitude 50′-50’51” East.

The Republic situated on the junction of Europe and Asia has a unique geopolitical and geographical position and had not lost its strategic importance for economic and cultural relations.

Landscape

Azerbaijan is characterized by a diverse landscape. There are two major forms of landscape-plains and mountains.

Mountains cover 60% of the total area of the Azerbaijan republic. The principal geomorphological structures of the Azerbaijan Republic — Major Caucasus, Minor Caucasus (with Garabagh plateau), and Talysh mountains surround the Kur-Araz lowland in the north, west, and southeast. The Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic is situated in the mid-course of the River Araz and within the boundaries of Zengezur and Dereleyez chains of mountains, fringing with the river.

The average altitude of the territory of the Republic is up to 400 meters. But the lowland of the Caspian Sea shore is below sea level (currently -26.5 meters) while the highest peak Bazarduzu is 4466 meters in height. Thus, one can see that the difference in altitude equals nearly 4500 meters in the country.

The northern part of the Major Caucasus is situated in Azerbaijan. Two chins of mountains are distinguished in this part: Head or Watershed chain with Bazarduzu (4466 meters) and Great (Side) chain of mountains with Shahdagh alp (4243). Mountains chains go down to 1000-700 meters to the South-East. The mountain chains of Major Caucasus are surrounded by foothill areas: a steppe plateau to the north-west, Gobustan to the south-east, Alazan-Ayrichay plain to the south-west, and Gusar sloping plain to the north-east.

The mountains are formed by less exposed to denudation sinking rocks of the Cretaceous and Jurassic periods. Foothills are characterized by badlands (Jeyranchol and Ajynour plains) and mud volcanos (Gobustan and Absheron). Gusar and Alazan-Hefteran valley is composed of a thick layer of quaternary gravel sediments.

The minor Caucasus surrounds the country in the southwest and west and is composed of a number of chains and plateaus with a relatively low height. Murovdag, Shahdagh, and Zangazur are the principal chains of Minor Caucasus. Garabagh plateau, extending from the south of Murovdagh up to the river Araz, lies on the cones of extinct vulcanos and quaternary lava. The minor Caucasus is formed by Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanogenic and sedimentary rocks.

Talysh mountains cover the southeast of the country. They are composed mainly of Tertiary sediments. Talysh mountains are the chain of transition from the Minor Caucasus to the Elbrus mountains in Iran. They consist of three mountain chains, reaching 2477 meters in height and a number of their ranges.

Kur-Araz lowland lies in the area between the Major and Minor Caucasus and Talysh Mountains. As the largest intermontane lowland in the entire Transcaucasia, it covers the central part of the country. The Kur and Araz rivers divide the lowland into five plains: Shirvan, Garabagh, Mil, Mughan, and Salyan plains.

Samur-Devechi lowland, resting on Gusar sloping plain on the Caspian Sea shore, stretches from the Absheron peninsula to the north. Lankaran lowland runs from the Absheron Peninsula to the south on the foothills of Talysh mountains. Kur-Araz, Samur-Devechi, Lankaran lowlands, and most parts of the Absheron peninsula lie below sea level.

Climate

The climate in Azerbaijan is major influenced by geographical position, landscape, and the Caspian Sea. The semidesert and dry, subtropic, temperate, and frigid types of climate dominate the country. It has been determined that Azerbaijan accounts for 8 out of 11 climate zones, existing in the world (by V.V.Keppen). The dry subtropical climate is typical for Kur-Araz lowland and Absheron. The damp subtropic climate is observed only in Talysh mountains, foothills, and Lankaran lowlands. Temperate climate observed the slopes of Major and Minor Caucasus mainly covered with forests is divided into dry, warm-temperate dry, warm-temperate damp and temperate zones. The frigid climate is typical of high mountain ranges, at the tops of Major and Minor Caucasus, alpine, subalpine meadows. The average annual temperatures equal 15C on the plains while in high mountain regions they fall even below zero. Temperatures reach 25-27C in Aran regions and 5C in mountain regions in July. The absolute maximum is 43C, while the minimum is lower than -30C. These minimal and maximal temperatures have been registered in the Nakhichevan lowland and mountains. Precipitation is also not equal across the territory of the country. The Absheron peninsula and the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic account for a lower level of precipitation per year (200 meters). Precipitations equal 200-300 mm in Kur-Araz lowland, 600-800 mm on north-eastern slopes of Major and Minor Caucasus, 1200-1300 mm on southern slopes of Major Caucasus at a height of 2000-2500 meters. Precipitation is the highest (1200-1700 mm) in the south of Lankaran lowland and the foothills of Talysh mountains.

Predominant winds blow to the north (the Absheron peninsula), south-west (Kur-Araz lowland), and west (Lankaran lowland).

Inland Water

The dense river system of the country covers its territory like a blue spider’s web. Azerbaijan accounts for 8400 small and large rivers, including 850 over 5 kilometers in length. Bust there are only 24 rivers extending to over 100 kilometers.

The rivers Kur and Araz-the largest rivers in the Caucasus are the main sources of hydroelectric energy and irrigation.

The river Kur originates at a height of 2740 meters on the north-eastern slope of Qyzylgedikdagh in Turkey. It passes through Georgia and enters Azerbaijan, runs through Kur-Araz lowland, and flows into the Caspian Sea. Its total length is 1515 km, with 906 kilometers in Azerbaijan. The area of its basin is 188 thousand kilometers. Mingechevir, Shamkir, and Yenikend dams and hydroelectric power stations were constructed and big water reservoirs established on the river Kur. The reserves of two canals, carrying water from the Minchechevir reservoir, Upper Garabagh and Upper Shirvan canals-are used in irrigating the lands of Kur-Araz lowland.

The River Araz originates from the Bingol mountains (2990) in Turkey and joins the Kur at Sabirabad (in Suqovushan village). It stretches to 1072 km and covers an area of 102 thousand km².

The river Samur is the largest river in north-eastern Azerbaijan. It originates in Daghestan at a height of 3600 meters and flows into the Caspian Sea. It is 216 km in length and its area totals 4.4 thousand km². Besides, the rivers Qusarchay, Qudyalchay, Velvelchay, Sumqayitchay, Vileshchay, Lenkeranchay, and Astarachay flow in the Caspian Sea as well.

Azerbaijan has a great number of mountain rivers. Most rivers feed on snow and rains. The rivers Balakenchay, Talachay, Katehchay, Kurnurchay, Kishchay, and other rivers, originating from Major Caucasus join the Alazan and Ayrichay rivers in Alazan-Ayrichay valley.

Rivers, running from the Minor Caucasus as Agstafachay, Tovuzchay, Asrikchay, Zeyemchay, Shamkirchay, Ganjachay, Kurekchay, Terterchay flow into the Kur, while Hekerichay, Okhchuchay, and Arpachay, Nakhichevanchay, Alianchay, Gilianchay, and Ordubadchay of the Nakhichevan AR enter Araz.

Azerbaijan accounts for nearly 250 fresh and salty lakes, differing by the sources of feeding and by origin. These include Tufangolu lake of glacial origin, the Goygol, Maralgol, Qaragol, Batanat, etc. formed by landslides, the Aggol, Sarysu, Mehman, Hadjyqabul, taking their origin from rivers and the largest salty lakes Adjinour, Boyukshor, Bineqedi, etc.

Vegetation

Azerbaijan has a rich flora. Almost all types of plants, found in the world are spread on the territory of this relatively small country. Nearly 4500 species of higher, spore-bearing flowering plants belong to 125 types and 920 genera. Azerbaijan is richer than any other Caucasus country by the total number of species. The republic accounts for 66% of all plant species found in the Caucasus. Along with plant species, widely spread in the Caucasus and other regions, Azerbaijan is also characterized by nearly 240 species of endemic plants. The vegetation spreads in accordance with the physical and geographical formation of e region, modern climate conditions, vertical zones, and a number of other factors. Thus, plant species of desert and semi-desert and mire vegetation covers the plains to a height of 200 meters.

Desert-type plants are found on the Caspian seashore, south-eastern Shirvan, Mil, Mugan, and Shirvan. Depending on the salinity of soils such plants as garasoran, shahsevdi gishotu, are widely spread in these regions. Semi-desert plants are widely spread in Shirvan, Salyan, Mugan, Mil, and Garabagh steppes, as well as in Djeyranchol, Qobustan plains and plains around the Araz. Absinth semi-deserts as zonal formations, dominate Kur-Araz, Qobustan, and Djeyranchol plains. Among other formations, garagan (Kur-Araz) and dengiz (Gobustan, Nakhichevan) are typical for Azerbaijan. Other widely spread plants of semi-deserts are bulbous bluegrass, Japanese brome, berk guramat, eastern bozag, chilingburnu, and a number of salinity herbs (cheren, shahsevdi, saltwort, gishotu. Tughai forests are peculiar of these areas. The forests covering the valleys of the Kur, Araz, and Qabirri rivers contain such trees as oak, willow, birch-tree, ash-tree, etc.

Foothill plains of Major and Minor Caucasus are mainly covered with annual and perennial xerophytic plants and bushes at a height from 200 meters up to 600-700 and sometimes even 1200 meters. The area above (up to 1800-2000 meters) is covered with forests.

Azerbaijan has an area of 86.6 million hectares, with 1213.7 thousand hectares of woodlands. Thus forests account for 989.5 thousand hectares or 11.4% of the total area of the country. Per capita area of forests equals 0.12 hectares of land that is by 4 lower than the average global indicator (0.48 hectares).

Though Azerbaijan’s forests occupy a relatively small area they are rich in species of trees. There are 435 tree and bush species with 70 species of endemic ones. The country is characterized by broad-leaved forests. Such forests are widely spread on the Major and Minor Caucasus and Talysh mountains. At a height of 600-1600 meters above sea level, they form a single zone. In other areas, they are preserved in glades and narrow strips.

The forests are formed by three main types of trees-beech-tree, hornbeam, and oak. They make up 86.2% of woodlands. Besides, forests also contain such broad-leaved trees as maple, elm, lime-tree, alder-tree, poplar, yalanyarpag, willow, etc. Needle-leaved forests account for 1.7% of the total area of forests. 7 species of needle-leaved trees out of 107 species of trees are naturally grown in the country. These are garajokesi, Eldar pine-tree, hooks pine, polycarpous, red, and uzungovdeli juniper trees.

Azerbaijan is home to a number of rare trees and bushes. Garajoke is a rare relict tree of the Tertiary period. It is widely spread in the south (Qabala) and south-east (Pirqulu and Shamakhy regions)of the Major Caucasus. Though slow-growing yet long-lived garachohre does never cover large areas. Eldar valley of Djeyranchol foothill is home to Eldar pane-tree. Among relict and rare trees of Tertiary period iron-tree, Lenkeran acacia, chestnut-leaved oak, zelkova, Caucasus date palm, box-tree, wing nut, Hirkan fig-tree, Hirkan birch-tree, etc are rare patterns of nature.

Fauna

Azerbaijan situates at the junction of a number of zoogeographical zones, characterized by a specific fauna. The animals from Iran, Central Asia, and the Mediterranean Sea have been adapted to Azerbaijan thus enriching its nature.

Due to the diverse natural conditions, Azerbaijan formed a colorful animal kingdom.

97 species of mammals, 357 species of birds, 67 species of amphibians and reptiles, 1 species of roundworm, 97 species of fish, more than 15,000 species of invertebrates are known in the country.

The fauna of plains is represented by a great number of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and numerous sedentary and migrant birds

One can come across such mammals as jeyran gazelle, wild boar, wolf, fox, badger, cane cat, rabbit, etc, reptiles as a swamp, Caspian and Mediterranean tortoise, striped lizard, ordinary and water grass-snake, adder, etc, amphibians-different species of tortoises, insects, birds-pheasant, partridge, turaj, different kinds of ducks and geese, loud and hissing water birds, coot, eagle, gallinule, heron, cormorant, pelican, etc.

Besides animals found in plains and mountains, these areas are also characterized by such animal species as East Caucasus billy-goat, Caucasus roe deer, Caucasus chamois, Caucasus tetra, Caucasus donkey, etc.

The Red Book of the Azerbaijan Republic comprises 108 animal species, including 14 species of mammals, 36 species of birds, 13 species of reptiles and amphibians, 5 species of fish, and 40 species of incests.

The minerals of Azerbaijan

The country is rich in three types of mineral products that are metallic, non-metallic, and combustible mineral products.

Azerbaijan is famous for its oil and gas deposits. 2/3 of the republic is rich in oil and gas. The Absheron Peninsula, Caspian shelf, Baku, and Absheron archipelagoes account for the most part of deposits. Southeastern Shirvan, Central Aran, Gobustan, Jeyranchol, Ajinour, and Siyezen are rich in oil.

The world-famed oil of Naftalan cures a number of diseases.

Gas deposits are found in Gatadagh, Caspian shelf, Baku, and Absheron archipelago. The region of Minor Caucasus accounts for the most part of metallic minerals: iron, manganese, titanium, chromium, copper, cobalt, complex ore, antimony, gold, silver, molybdenum, etc. The biggest deposit of iron was found in Dashkesen.

Among non-metallic minerals limestones of Gobustan, Absheron, Tovuz, travertine stones of Kelbadjar and Shahtakhty (Nakhichevan AR), marble of Dashkesan, gypsum of Upper Aghjakend, alums of Hajyveli, and of great industrial importance.

The country is also rich in mineral waters, with different chemical ingredients. Due to that Azerbaijan is called the museum of mineral waters. Istisu (in Kelbedjar), Badamly, and Sirab (in Nakhichevan AR) are famed mineral waters.

Surakhany and Shykh of Absheron peninsula, Qalaalty, of Devechi district, Turshsu of Julfa district are used as a treatment of a number of diseases. Thermal waters dominate the Talysh mountains and southern and northeastern slopes of Major Caucasus

The Caspian Sea

The Caspian Sea, the largest enclosed water basin in the world is of great importance for the Azerbaijani people. It has unique physical and geographical properties, It should be noted that the flora and fauna of the Caspian Sea are rich in endemic species. For example, 90% of the total reserves of sturgeon, differing from other fishes by its antiquity, are found in this sea.

The specific geographical landscape created favorable recreational conditions.

The sea stretches along a meridian in the shape of the Latin letter “S” and it locates between latitude 47’17” north and longitude 36’33” east. The sea across the meridian stretches to nearly 1200 km, its average breadth is 310 the maximal and minimal breadth id 435 and 195 accordingly. As the level of the Caspian Sea changes periodically, the volume of water and its boundaries are also changeable. At present, the level of the sea is 26.75 meters below sea level. At this level the area of the sea is 392600 km², the volume of water is 78648 km3. This volume makes up 44% of the total water reserves of all lakes in the world. Its maximum depth is 1025 meters and due to that, the sea rivals the Black Sea, Baltic Sea, and the Yellow Sea and it is even deeper than the Adriatic Sea, Aegean Sea, Tiren Sea, and the Sulu Sea.

Caspian Azeri Sector occupies central and southern parts of the Sea. Caspian Sea water differs from that of the world ocean by its salinity. The salinity totals 5-6 ppm in the north and 12.6-13.5 ppm in the south. 170 out of 300 mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan are located in the Caspian Azeri sector. The number of volcanoes is higher in the South Caspian Sea.

The uniqueness and colors of natural conditions promoted the preservation of a number of rare flora and fauna species in the Caspian Sea up to the present day.

The Caspian Azeri sector accounts for 171 species of phytoplankton, 40 species of animal plankton, 258 species of fitdentos, 91 species of macrozoobenthos, and 80 species and subspecies of fish belonging to 14 families.

Carp-like fishes are the most numerous species-42 species, they are followed by gudgeons-31, herring-17, salmon fishes-2, sturgeon-5 species. The fish fauna of the Caspian Sea comprises 4 genuses, 31 species, and 45 subspecies of endemic fiches. Most endemic fishes are registered in the central part of the Caspian Sea.

Approximately 40 species and subspecies of fish play an important role in fishing. Flock accounts for the biggest part of the total fish fauna (80%) the remainder part comprises herring, grey mullet, friar, argentine, and gudgeon. The Red Book of the Azerbaijan Republic includes the following species of rare and endangered species: stone-eel, sig, Southern Caspian white-eye, chekhon, sea pike-perch. In the last few years, the number of all kinds of sturgeon (beluga, spine, long-nosed sturgeon), Caspian salmon, white salmon, khramulya, shamai fish, shibrit, garasol, is decreasing rapidly and these fishes are on the verge of extinction. The seal is the only mammal found in the Caspian Sea. It is the smallest kind of all existing seals. The number of Caspian seals decreased from 1.5 million in the early 20^th century down to 360-400 thousand in 1980^th. The Caspian seal was included in the Red Book in 1993.

302 species of birds have been registered on the Caspian Sea and its coastal regions: these include 37 species of water birds, 109 species of birds populating areas around water basins, and 156 terranes birds.

The Republic of Azerbaijan is typified by relief of different kinds and complexity. Over half of the country’s area consists of the mountain ridges, crests, plateaus rise up to hypsometric levels of 400-500 m, (or up to 800-1000 m within the Middle and Lower Araz lowlands), in some places (Talis, Jeyranchol-Ajinohur and Langabiz-Alat for ranges) up to 100-120 m, as well as 0-50 m up (Gobustan, Absheron) the rest part of which are plains and lowlands.

Hypsometric marks within the Great Caucasus region vary in the range from about -28 m at the Caspian Sea shoreline up to 4466 m, (Bazarduzu peak). Quantitative area distribution according to their hypsometric levels is as follows: 18% of the area is located below the Ocean level, 24%-has hypsometric marks ranging from 0 to 200 m, 15.5% are covered by areas which elevation ranges from 200 to 500 m, another 15.5% are covered by areas which elevation marks ranges from 500 to 1000 m, 19.5% are covered by areas which elevation ranges from 1000 to 2000 m high, 6.5% are covered by areas which elevation ranges from 2000 to 3000 m, and only 1% is the areas which elevation marks are over 3000 m high. The average elevation is 384 m high. Principle orographic units of Azerbaijan Republic consists of the Great Caucasus mountain system, Samur-Davachi lowland (in conjunction with Gusar inclined plain), Kur River lowland, Minor Caucasus and Talish mountain systems.

The only southeast part of the Great Caucasus mountain region is located within the Azerbaijan Republic. The basic orographic elements of this part of the Great Caucasus system are the Major Caucasus system (or watershed ridge) and the Lateral ridge. Major Caucasus ridge constitutes a large portion of the Great Caucasus system and extends southeast off Tinov-Rosso elevation (3385 m) is located at Azerbaijan State border with Georgia and Daghestan AR. The only southern flank of the ridge between Tinov-Rosso and Bazar-Duzu (the northern flank of the ridge belongs to Daghestan AR), where both flanks of that part belong to Azerbaijan. The Major Caucasus watershed ridge is not crossed with any river valleys (and therefore it is also called Watershed ridge). Most part of the ridge elevation is over 3000 m high, and only in its central part, it exceeds 4000 m height (Bazar-Dyuzu – 4466 m, Tufandagh-4191 m, Bazaryurd- 4126 m). Beginning from Babadagh peak (3629m) the same ridge elevation gradually goes down and becomes wider. Starting from Dubrar elevation (2205 m) Major Caucasus ridge plunges northeastward towards the Caspian Sea like expanded fan having been cut by river valleys into separate ridges like Gadi-Kurkachidagh, Aladagh, Kemchi, and others. The same ridges are further divided into smaller and lower ridges to pass into low elevation mountain region named Gobustan, and further on into Absheron Peninsula. North off and parallel to the Great Caucasus ridge, there is a southeast trending ridge called Lateral, of which the Azerbaijan section starts from the Shahdagh (4243) extending and getting lower southeastward and terminates at Beshbarmag (546m) pinnacle. Lateral ridge is divided into stand-alone blocks-Plateaus (Shahdagh, Gizilgaya, Budugh, etc) by river valleys that begin from the Great Caucasus ridge. Northeast off and parallel to the Lateral ridge there is Talabi-Gaynarja elevation (which elevation ranges from 1000-1100m in the west down to 150-200m in the east). Ridges and elevations are divided from each other by valleys and intermontane troughs (Shahnabad, Khinalig, Erphee, Gonagcand, Kaltan, Gilgilchay, Tigchay, Rustov, Perebedil, etc). The southern flank of the Great Caucasus ridge descended down to Alazan-Ayrichay valley(in some sources Alazan-Haftaran valley, whereas in others it is considered as one of the Kur River valley parts) that in some places is parallel to the mentioned ridge. Said above valley begins from the Georgia Republic and is 210 km long and 30 km wide in Azerbaijan. Nialdagh ridge which elevation reaches up to 2100 m high is extended parallel to the Great Caucasus one apart through Lahij valley

Samur-Davachi lowland is extended along the Caspian shoreline from Samur River to Sumgayit-chay. Its portion located in between Atachay and Sumgayit-chay is called Boghaz plain. This lowland in the northwest (at 200-250m hypsometric level) passes into Gusaz inclined plain through a 10-25 m high bench. Gusar inclined plains in the southwest reach Lateral ridge where its elevation mark amounts to 19000 m (Boyuk Suval) Lowland hypsometric level on Caspian shoreline level is 28 m below the ocean level.

Azerbaijani part of the Minor Caucasus consists dominantly of several variously trending ridges that are not the main watershed ones including Murovdagh, Karabakh, Michtocan, systems, partially Shahdagh, Shargi-Goycha (Shargi Sevan), Zangazur, Daralayaz mountain systems, volcanic plateau (most of Karabakh plateau) and Bashcand-Dastafur etc lowlands (in some publications Zangazur and Daralayaz systems, as well as Karabakh plateau,  do not refer to the Minor Caucasus). Shahdagh ridge extends off the same elevation (2901 m) in the northwest and towards Hinaldagh elevation (3367 m) in the southeast. Murovdagh ridge extends north off Hinaldagh elevation through Gamishdagh elevation (3724 m). North off those ridges there is Bashcand-Dastafur lowland and even more to the north there is Shamkir vault elevation. Pant ridge and stand-alone Kapaz elevation (3030 m) separate Bashcand-Dastafur lowland in the north from Aghjacand lowland. Minor Caucasus north flank ridges get lower to the north and abruptly pass into Ganja-Gazah plain within Middle Kur River valley through steeply plunging flanks. East Goycha (East Sevan) ridge serves as a watershed for Tartar River and Sevan Lake drainage systems. Its highest elevation is Ketidagh (3437 m). Minor Caucasus southeast termination known as Karabakh ridge gets lower towards Araz River valley and passes into foothill inclined plain. Its highest elevation Gizgala (2843 m) Girhgiz (2830 m) Boyuk Kirs (2725 m) from stand-alone rocky elevations overbroad and smooth watershed background within the northern part of the ridge. Over the ridge north flank, there are transversal crests and depressions. Karabakh ridge jutted out with latitudinally trending Mikhtocan ridge (Dalidagh, 3613 m) in the northwest. Zangazuz and Daralayaz ridges southwest and south flanks respectively belong to Azerbaijan Republic (within the Nakhchivan Republic). Zangazyr ridge is extended down to Araz River valley.

This ridge is the highest among the Minor Caucasus mountain system which an average height is 3200 m. The highest elevations of the ridge (Gapijik, 3906 m, Gazandoldagh, 3814 m, etc) are situated in its southern part. A great number of transversal crests are extended southwestward off the ridge. Different kinds of stand-alone extrusions and laccolith bodies are typical for their fore-range portion (Ispandagh-2410m, Khanaga-1910m, Alinja-1810m).

West off Zangazur ridge there is Daralayaz ridge (Kukudagh-3210 m, Kechaldagh-3115 m) that gradually descends towards Araz River valley. South of the ridge within its fore range part there are dominantly plateaus and crests (Givrag, Duzdagh, etc). 

Both ridges south and southwest foothills pass into plains extended along Araz River left bank and divided apart from each other by elevations and crests (Sadarak, Sharur, Boyukdyuz, Nakhchivan, Julfa, Yayji, etc). Karabakh plateaus occupy a relatively wide area where large extinct volcanic necks are jutted out in between Zangazur and Karabakh ridges over the rolling surface (Gizilboghaz-3581 m, Boyuk Ishigly-3552m, Ala Gollar-3175 m, etc) in between Zangazur and Karabakh ridges.

Here, the average elevation varies in the range from 2000 to 2500 m. Plateau gets narrower and its height descends southward and finally terminates at the interflow point of Bazarchay and Hakarachay Rivers.

Talish mountain system is located southeast of the Lower Araz River valley (some explorers consider that Talish mountains are suggested to be the Alborz system northwest extension). This mountain system consists of almost parallel and northwest to southeast extended Talish, Peshtasar, and Burovar ridges. The longest of them (about 100 km long) which elevation reaches 2500 m high is the Talish ridge trending along the State border with the Islamic Republic of Iran. In some places, those ridges join to each other through transversal ridges that form stand-alone intermontane troughs (Yardimly, Zuvand, etc). Lankaran lowland is located in between Talish mountain and the Caspian Sea.

Kur River valley occupies the central part of the Azerbaijan Republic. Its relief consists of vast plain terrane and foothill areas. The main orographic feature of the valley that lies in between Great and Minor Caucasus systems is the Kur-Araz lowland terrane the largest one in the south Caucasus region. The lowland terrane is divided by Kur and Araz Rivers into Mil-Karabakh, Shirvan, and Mughan-Saliyan plains. West and the central parts of the Kur-Araz lowland terrane lies some 28 m below the ocean level. Its foothill area elevation varies in range from 100-250 m and in some places up to 400-500 m high. Anja-Gazah inclined plains in the northwest are extended along the Kur River right bank whereas Anaghy-Arazboyu inclined plains in the southwest are extended along the Araz River left bank. North off Ganja-Gazah inclined plain and Kur-Araz lowland there are Jeyranchol, Ajinohur, and Langabiz-Alat foothill terranes. Ajinohur foothill terrane, which elevation reaches up to 1100m high, consists of several ridges, crests, as well as lowlands and valleys dividing them from each other is extended along the south margin of the largest of them Alazan-Ayrichay valley.

Elevation terrane ranking

The complexity of the Azerbaijan Republic relief provides an opportunity to carry out its vertical ranking as follows: the high mountain terrane, intermediate-level mountain terrane, low-level mountain terrane, and plain-lowland terranes.

The high mountain terrane embraces areas over 2500, high. In this context, the Great Caucasus system consists of Major Caucasus and the Lateral ridges. Minor Caucasus high mountain terrane includes basically lateral parts of Zangazur, Mishovdagh, and Shahdagh ridges that in many places look like narrow zones. Due to poorly developed vegetative cover, this terrane is characterized by cliffy and rocky topography. Here, there are many taped and pectinal elevations. Besides, there are relics of the ice-worn relief (trough valleys, cirques, and corries). Also, there are small contemporaneous glaciers. Mountain slopes are covered with thick clastic debris cones.

Intermediate-level mountain terranes occupy most mountain systems which elevation varies in the range from 1000 to 2500 m high, and is dissected by deep river gorges. In areas where river gorges become wider, particularly within intermontane valleys, there are many terraces, and staggered leveling plains are pervasive. In some places, there are occurrences of landslides and rockfalls.

Low-level mountain terrane embraces areas which an elevation of about 200 m high (Gobustan and Ajinohur) and about 50-100m high within foothill areas. In this terrane, the hillsides are gentle and watershed areas are smooth. In some areas (Gobustan, Jeyranchol, and Ajinohur foothills and Nakhchivan AR foothills) lack of moisture promotes arid-denudation processes evolvement that resulted in badland landscape, clay cast, and other relief forms development.

The plain-lowland terrane embraces areas which elevation varies in the range from 100-200 m, in some places to 400-500 m (and from 800-1000 m within the Nakhichevan Republic). This terrane includes most of the Kur River and Samur River lowland areas, Alazan-Ayrichay valley, Araz River nearby plains, etc. Aggradation terraces are widespread here. The main relief forms within the foothill areas are alluvial cones and dunes within the Caspian coastal area.

The main contemporaneous relief components and key geomorphologic features have been generated during the recent stage tectonic activity (Pligocene-Anthropogenic) and underwent a tricky evolution history. During this stage of evolution, the mountainous areas have risen up to 2.5-4.5km high (given that denudation has not been taken into account), whereas plain areas have subsided in the range from 2.5-3.0 to 8-11,5km. In areas where ascending movement rate exceeded that of denudation, mountain terranes have emerged, whereas within subsided areas (given that subsidence rate is equal to that of marine and terrestrial sedimentation), plain terranes have been generated. Though structural architecture and geologic evolution in these region’s history are different, their relief formation processes had something in common. One of them is the fact that the Caspian Sea level served as a common base of erosion. Caspian Sea level fluctuation had a tremendous and recurrent impact upon both mountain and plain terranes’ relief evolution through erosion processes activation, attenuation, and keeping pace with subsidence, and in this context, relief peneplanation processes had been in common. However, some discrete areas had their own specific relief formation features (magmatic processes within the Minor Caucasus, mud volcanism activity within the Great Caucasus southeast termination). The evolvement of relief-forming exogenic processes also differs dependent on rock composition, climate, and type of elevation zone features.

During the evolution of neotectonic relief formations within the Republic of Azerbaijan, such processes as changes in tectonic regime, and elevation rate increment played a significant role that resulted in a widening of such systems as the Great Caucasus, Minor Caucasus, and Talysh Mountains. 

Since the onset of this evolution stage intermontane depressions had accumulated fine sand and clay sediments, and coarse-grained sandstone and pebble deposits during the stage termination. Tectonic movement contrast increased during Oligocene-Early Miocene time. River system base level had been established just that time. Peneplanation planes came out during tectonic activity quiescent periods. During the Middle and Late Miocene time relief terrane formation remains the same as during the Early Miocene time, however, its development was underway in more sustainable tectonic circumstances. During that period of time vast peneplanation planes had evolved.

During the Late Miocene termination tectonic elevation rate abruptly had increased within the Great and Minor Caucasus intermontane systems. Relief contrast increased and mountain elevation increased too. Relief erosion and washout material transportation increased that led to drainage area base-level change. During the Early and Middle Pliocene time mountain elevation process also increased along with continued tectonic motion differentiation increment. It is supposed that vertical landscape zoning was first established at that time. In this context, exogenic processes had occurred in a somewhat different mode. The recent relief of the territory of Azerbaijan had been formed during the Late Pliocene-Anthropogenic time. In this connection, that period of time was characterized by relief development and Caspian Sea level fluctuation that led to marine transgression and regression development, as well as volcanism activity. In parallel with each regression, the development sea receded to increase terrestrial areas while the riverbeds extended to achieve stepping back shoreline. Erosion base level drop led to the river- beds got deeper, and erosion processes activation within their drainage area and drainage network itself underwent significant spatial changes. Marine terraces had been developed due to Caspian Sea level recurring fluctuation, whereas magmatic (Minor Caucasus) and mud volcanism (Great Caucasus) relief was developed due to both kinds of volcanic activity.

The diversity of reliefs in the territory of Azerbaijan is typified by their origin. The following types of relief may be found generated in the area tectonic, volcanic, pseudo volcanic, nival-glacier, gravity-driven, fluvial, arid denudation, eolian, karst, talus, etc.

Tectonic relief has been formed in every single area of the Republic. Most general background and profound terranes (Great Caucasus, Minor Caucasus, and Talish mountain systems, Kur River lowland) have resulted due to recent tectonic movements. It is suggested that in recent fold areas (Jeyranchol and Ajinohur fore range areas, Gobustan, Absheron Peninsula) all relief features are associated with the tectonic movements. Volcanic relief is more typical for the Garabagh plateau terrane. Relief forms in these areas are dominated by lava and scoria cones, staggered lava plateaus, and volcanic flows. Lake sags and hanging bogs were formed in areas where lava flows intersected with riverbeds. Volcanic outbursts that occurred in the high mountain cold climate environment led to the formation of pebble deposits by abrupt lava cooling and splitting.

Pseudo volcanic relief formation has been formed as a result of mud volcanoes activity. Such relief features within Gobustan, Absheron Peninsula, southeast Shirvan plain, and other areas such as offshore Baku Archipelago are typical and occur like and cones and coniform hills, Most Baku Archipelago Islands has been generated due to mud volcanoes activity.

Nival-glacier relief has been formed due to ancient and recent glacier abrasion and accumulation, and appears like a glacial trough, corries, dump moraine, and shoved moraine. Such kind of glacial relief is widespread within the Great Caucasus (Major Caucasus ridge, Lateral ridge) and Minor Caucasus systems (Murovdagh, Shahdagh, Zangazur, Garabagh plateau ) high mountain relief zone.

Gravity-driven relief features consist of landslide and rockfall terranes. Mountain rock falls are dominantly evolved within Great Caucasus Shahdagh and Gizilgaya plateaus, within Minor Caucasus Shargi Goycha, both Murovdagh and Garabagh ridges, and Kapaz Mountain terrane. Several mountain lakes in Azerbaijan (Goygol, Maralgol, Ganligol, etc) were formed as a result of mountain rock falls. Landslides are dominantly pervasive in areas with conducive lithology and hydrogeology conditions within the southeast Great Caucasus (Girdiman-chay, Aghsu) and its northeast sector (Valvala-chay, Gilgilchay, Atachay).

The most widespread type of relief in Azerbaijan is fluvial. Lake Goygol was originated as a result of surface water activity. Such kinds of relief features include riverbeds, terraces, gorges, washout fans (debris cones), deltas, and other erosion and accumulative relief forms.

Arid-denudation has driven relief to evolve within arid regions where loose sand/clay deposits are widespread: Gobustan, west part of Absheron Peninsula, northeast flank of Major Caucasus ridge (the area between Gilgilchay and Sumgayit-chay), Jeyranchol-Ajinohur fore ranges, Nakhchivan AR fore range systems, etc. Those relief terranes are dominantly attributed to badland and clay pseudocyst formation.

Eolian relief forms embrace dunes, sand bars, and cones and coincide with Samur-Davachi lowland, Absheron Peninsula, and southeast Shirvan coastal areas. These relief forms have evolved due to the arid climate environment and the wealth of sand deposits.

Karst relief features can be observed within both Great and Minor Caucasus mountain systems where carbonate deposits crop out to the surface. Their formation was stipulated with surface and ground waters chemical and mechanic impact. Karst relief diversity includes sinkholes, caves, ponors, etc features. Azikh cave, known due to the famous Alm Paleolit archaeology findings, is considered one of the significant karst relief forms.

Talus relief has been evolved due to Caspian Sea abrasion and accumulation activity. The coastal area that underwent Quaternary time transgression demonstrates such kind of relief as beach barriers, terraces, cliffs, benches, and others.

Polygenetic relief forms (dominantly peneplanation planes) are generated due to combining effects of relief forming processes that can be observed within mountain regions.

Anthropogenic (technogenic) relief forms due to irrigation (watering and drainage) systems, civil and military construction (dams, dykes, etc), and other people’s activities are most of all widespread within the Kur-Araz River lowland.

Geomorphologic regions

The territory of Azerbaijan has an intricate geomorphologic structure. There are morphologic features that underwent insignificant tectonic impacts such as denudation-structure mountains and those that suffered its strong impact, or erosion-structure mountains, volcanic mountains, accumulation-denudation plateaus, and plains, as well as accumulation plains. Relief origin, its formation age, morphologic features, geologic setting, and their relation to recent tectonic movements made it possible to divide Azerbaijan Republic territory into two geomorphology country (Cremia-Caucasus, Minor Asia, and four provinces -Foothill Caucasus, Great Caucasus, South Caucasus depression, Minor Caucasus) which includes six geomorphology regions: Samur-Davachi, East Great Caucasus, Kur River lowland, Outside Minor Caucasus, Internal Minor Caucasus, and Talish region which in their own turn embraces sub-region and districts.

Sometimes Middle Araz lowland, Zangazur, and Daralayaz ridges, as well as Talish mountain and Lankaran lowlands are included in the Minor Caucasus region as component geomorphology districts, whereas Gusar inclined plain and Alazan-Ayrichay valley geomorphology districts are referred to as the Great Caucasus region.

Samur-Davachi geomorphology region in terms of structural ranking is suggested to be the southeast extension and constituent part of Gusar-Davachi foredeep that took shape during the recent tectonic evolution stage and is located within the Great Caucasus northeast foothills. Its recent surface and basic geomorphologic attributes have been formed due to Late Pliocene and Anthropogenic marine and terrestrial accumulation processes. There are marine terraces, diluvial cones which deposits were shed from Great Caucasus northeast flanks as well as lowland sags in between mentioned cones. Coastal areas are dominantly covered with sands. Its surface is inclined (approximately from 0 to 1900 m high) and is typified by staggered and rolling appearance. Its surface inclination and erosion increase along with elevation increment. Erosion incision reaches 850-950 m within its foothill areas. This region is divided into Samur-Davachi and Gusar geomorphologic districts.

East Great Caucasus geomorphologic region is distinguished from the other geomorphologic regions by more widespread nival glacial and explosion glacial relief. Late Pliocene-Anthropogenic glaciation relics here remained as trough valleys, corries, dump moraine, and small roaches. There also are widespread mud volcanoes, landslides, badlands, and clay karst terranes. Peneplanation plane features are also observed here. Those peneplanation planes caused inclined plain to appear in a staggered mode. The most widespread contemporary exogenic processes are erosion and gravity-driven ones. The region is divided into Major Caucasus ridge southern flank and southeast Caucasus geomorphology sub-regions:

1. Major Caucasus ridge south flank sub-region is located between Mazimchay and Girdimanchay interfluve and is severely dissected by river valleys (incision depth varies from 300 to 150 m). Watersheds are usually narrow, serrate, and elevations are tapered. In some places, there are relatively steep (40-70 C and over), with usually extremely narrow riverbeds. River inlet ravines are usually dissected and complicated by landslides. As ravines got wider there appear terraces. Mud-flows frequently occur there. Rockfalls and detritus materials are also widespread there. Zagatala, Shaki, and Lahij geomorphologic districts are outlined within that sub-region;

2. Southeast Caucasus sub-region includes severely dissected mountain ridges. Major Caucasus ridge is a constituent part of that sub-region and consists of a narrow lateral part and steep (50-70 C) dominantly naked flanks. The westward watershed of the Lateral ridge is divided from each other canyon shape ravines into smoothed large synclinal plateaus (the biggest one is Shahdagh plateau). Severely dissected Lateral Niyaldagh ridge is located on the south. There are several troughs between ridges. Those flanks consist of terraces. Landslides and rockfalls are typical for that terrane. The eastward sub-region includes its native Shamakhy area, as well as Gobustan and Absheron Peninsula. Its subdued relief plateaus embrace Absheron Peninsula. Gizmaydan Shamakhy, Maraza, etc are typified by subdued relief plateaus. Their watershed and flanks are subdued. River beds are usually narrow, but in some places, they pass into relatively large terraced depressions. The northwest part of the sub-region is characterized by landslides and rockfalls, whereas in its southeast part there are mud volcanoes, badlands, and clay karst like arid relief features, and sand dunes are pervasive among Absheron coastal area. There also are salt bottom closed depressions and salt lakes in the area. Such geomorphologic districts as Bazarduzu, Shahnabad-Khizi, Shahdagh, Tengi-Beshbarmag, Dubrar, Shamakhy, Gobustan, and Absheron have been delineated here.

Recent tectonic movements and exogenic relief forming intricate processes have resulted in the diversity of relief forms observed within the Kur River lowland geomorphologic region. It consists of four geomorphologic sub-regions: Alazan-Ayrichay valley, Jeyranchol-Ajinohur fore range, Kur-Araz Rivers lowland, and Minor Caucasus foothill inclined plain.

1. Alazan-Ayrichay valley sub-region in terms of morphology context embraces isolated and subsided inclined foothill plain. Its surface is covered with alluvial-proluvial deposits. Alluvial cones and deposits concentrated between those cones are partially bogged. The predominant process is deposit accumulation. Alluvial cones consist of coarse materials, whereas deposits located between them are fine. Alazan and Ismayilly geomorphology districts are outlined in the sub-region;

2. Jeyranchol-Ajinohur fore range sub-region is located in the north of Kur River valley. Jeyranchol andAjinohur fore ranges located south off Alazan-Ayrichay valley, as well as Langabiz-Alat fore range located in the northeast Kur River valley are also inclined in that sub-region. Its relief consists of ridges, crests, and elevations, as well as valleys and troughs in between reflecting anticlines and synclines respectively. The ridges and crest flanks are asymmetric (consist of Upper Pliocene deposits in its west and east parts and Anthropogenic deposits in its center). Their south flanks are very steep and north flanks are gentle. In some places (Gurjuvan plateau) at a 600-1000 m level, there are peneplanation planes. Sub-region is divided with antecedent valleys of the transversally flowing transit rivers. Incision depth varies in the range from 250 to 700m. The dissection is denser within the south flanks where ravines and gorges of badland-type erosion are underway. Mud volcanoes are observed in the east part. Sub-region is divided into Ajinohur, Langabiz-Alat, and Harami geomorphologic districts;

3. Kur-Araz lowland sub-region is the largest part of the Kur-River valley. Its central part is covered with clay deposits, whereas Late Anthropogenie and Holocene terrestrial and marine clay, sand and pebble deposits cover its marginal parts. Having been young and gently slopping sub-region relict surface is just slightly dissected. East part of the considered region of crests and elevations (Kurovdagh, Babazanan, Mishovdah, Galmas, Bozdagh, Khidirly, Bandovan) caused by recent folding and mud volcanism. The riverbeds are shallow, meandering with accumulation processes underway. Diluvial cones are met within Shirvan Shirvan plain. The central part of the plain, as well as Mughan and Salyan plains,  are typified by ancient river-bed levees, drainless depressions, sub-aerial delta, whereas within southeast Shirvan there are Recent Caspian lagoonal deposit relics, deflation gullies, conical dunes, ancient and recent beach barriers. Artificial watering and irrigation impact upon lowland relief. Relief dissection, washout (erosion) and soil salinization processes get more active under Anthropogenic conditions. Sub-region embraces Shirvan, southeast Sirvan, Kur River banks, Mughan, and Salyan geomorphology districts;

4. Minor Caucasus inclined foothill plain sub-region embraces dominantly northeast foothills extended between Khrami and Araz Rivers. It is 350 km long and 12 to 30 km wide. Its surface is covered with Late Pliocene-Anthropogenic terrestrial clay matrix pebble deposits Low crests and hills are observed only within Kurak and Tartar Rivers interfluve (Naftalan, Gedakboz, Duzdagh). The border line between the plain and mountain areas is extended along the normal fault. Transition into Kur-Araz Rivers lowland passes gradually. The surface begins from the Minor Caucasus mountain area and is dissected by Kur River right-side tributaries. Incision depth varies in the range from 10-15 m to 100-220 m, and in some (Tartar River valley) reaches up to 220-250 m deep. The most typical relief forms are diluvial cones and flanking deposits between them. There are ravine-gully networks within the plain Naftalan-Gazanbulag sector and Kur River valley flanks (Aghstafa-Shamkir Rivers interfluve). The sub-region includes Ganja-Gazakh, Karabakh, and Mil geomorphology districts.

Outside the Minor Caucasus geomorphology region is an area where denudation processes dominate currently. Accumulation areas are met rarely. Mountain ridges here are divided from each other with troughs. Due to particular geomorphologic characteristics, dominant processes here are erosion ones. This region is divided into three geomorphology sub-regions (northeast, north, and southwest slopes).

1. Northeast slope sub-region includes Shahdagh and Murovdagh ridges, Shamkir vault elevation, Bashcand-Dastafur depression, etc. Sub-region undergoes severe erosion and therefore is attributed to rugged topography. Gravity-driven processes were also pervasive here. In some places there are rock falls terranes (Kapaz) In places where rockfalls formed dams across the river the lacustrine deposits were deposited (Goygol, Maralgol, Garagol, etc). Through valleys and corries observed at 2400m level within Murovdagh and Shahdagh north flank gives evidence about the glaciation features during Anthropogenic time. Peneplanation planes are widespread within intermediate mountain zones. River valleys are also widespread in the area. There are ancient river valley relics. Marginal areas are surrounded by low-mountain zones. Intermountain troughs here are filled with cobble-pebble deposits (Alibayli, Chaycand, Garachinar, etc). Penenlanation planes are also frequently met here. Some places are characterized by landslide terranes. The sub-region is divided into Aghstafa, Shamkir, Dashcasan-Aghjacand, Shahdagh, and Murovdagh geomorphology districts.

2. The east slope sub-region basically consists of the Garabagh ridge. The Watershed area of the ridge at about 1800-2000 m height is dominantly deprived of vegetative cover and severely rugged. There are also gravity-driven relief features. Ancient river valley relics with peneplanation planes can be observed at 1600-2000 m levels. Structural and structural-denudation origin ridges and crests are located at a bit lower position. Those ridges and crests are surrounded by intermontane troughs (Khachinchay, Dovshanly, Hasanabad, etc). Seismo-tectonic processes that occur along the growing fault promote the development of the large-scale rock fall boulder-train formation in the area, where Hasanabad (Khachinchay) trough borders with Baghirkhan (Boghurkhan) ridge. Intrusive mountain terranes and elevations (Galaychi, Bozdag, Gazanchi) are typical for low mountain zone. The ridge gradually becomes lower southeastwards and passes into the Lower Araz River inclined plain. The Lower Araz River geomorphology district has been outlined within the sub-region.

3. The southwest flank sub-region embraces Hakari River and partially Tartar River drainage areas. Its relief had been severely dissected, and in some places is covered with lava sheets and volcanic-proluvial deposits. 

The area is characterized by tectonic-erosive and litho-structural ridges and crests, intrusive bodies (Dalidagh, etc), and intermontane troughs (Pirjan, Lachin, etc). Peneplanation planes within the watershed area and flanks (Mikhtocan), solid rock placers within Kalbajar ridge flanks, and gorgeous terraces can be observed within Lachin region. Karst relief forms are also evolved here. The sub-region includes Kalbajar, Mikhtocan, and Hakari geomorphologic districts.

Internal Minor Caucasus embraces areas that underwent Pliocene and Anthropogenic volcanic activity, as well as mountain and intermontane areas in which relief was developed under arid climate conditions. Volcanic type and Anthropogenic glacier-driven relief forms are widespread here. Currently, such key relief-formation processes as arid-denudation ones are underway. This region is divided into Garabagh volcanic plateau, mountain area adjacent to Araz River, and Nakhchivan (Middle Araz) depression geomorphology sub-regions.

1. Most of the Garabagh volcanic plateau sub-region consists of Upper Pliocene-Anthropogenic lava sheets, lava flows, and volcanic cones. Its central part at 3000-3500 m level has a rolling surface. The major eruption centers such as Boyuk Ishigly, Gizilboghaz, and Kechaldagh give evidence of the ancient and recent nival-volcanic relief forms. Intact and flat lava flows cover staggered relief surfaces. Final effusive lava sheets crept down the slope like 25-30 km long flow tongues from their eruption center towards Tartar, Hakari, Bazarchay, and Arpachay Rivers. Erosion processes impact upon lava sheets split around Girmizidagh, Ayichingily and Parichingily promoted pebble deposit formation. The riverbeds have cut deep gorges at the plateau margins. The River Network is poorly developed within the plateau area. Drailess areas contain the lakes. Sub-region includes Gizilboghaz- Ishigly, Alagollar- Kalbajar, Boyuk Goycha, and Yazi geomorphologic districts;

2. Mountain zone adjacent to Araz River sub-region embraces such ridges as Daralayaz, Zangazur, and Bargushad. Ancient volcanism-driven relief forms are dominant here. The high mountain zone is characterized by rocky and dissected relief and widespread explosive volcanic materials. There are also such relief patterns as ancient glacial forms (corries, flat-bottomed valleys). Erosion incision depth exceeds 1200 m. Below 2400 m level there evolved peneplanation planes. Here, there are depressions surrounded by mountains (Badamly, Tirshak, Aylis, etc). Monocline ridges and crests along with synclinal plateaus dominate within the close vicinity to Araz River valley. Flanks of just mentioned structures are attributed to badland and pseudokarst features. Sub-region includes Daralayaz, Zangazur, and Bargushad geomorphology regions.

3. Nakhchivan (Middle Araz) lowland sub-region basically embraces plain vicinity around Araz River. The dominant process here is accumulation one. Intrusive bodies jutted out along the border-line between the plain and the mountain area (Nahajir, Alinja, Alandagh), in some places like stand-alone elevations. In the close vicinity along the Araz River, there are monocline crests (Nakhchivan AR, Daridagh) and synclinal plateaus. Flanks of said structures are typified by badland and pseudokarst relief forms. The following geomorphology sub-regions as Sharur, Nehram, and Ordubad have been delineated here.

Talish geomorphology region consists of Talish mountains (Talish, Pestashar, and Boruvar ridges) and Lankaran lowland. One of the typical relief features is ridges and wide intermontane troughs (Yardimly, Zuvard, etc). Due to landscape inversion, predominantly Talish high-mountain zone is attributed by arid-denudation processes and relevant relief forms were generated by arid-semi-desert and dry steppe conditions. The Mountain zone has undergone severe dissection caused by the dense transversal relative to the ridge extension drainage network. Marine terraces have evolved within the river valley watercourses trending towards the Lankaran lowland. Peneplanation planes can also be observed here. Watershed ridges are relatively smoothed, while River valley flanks are gentle. Landslides are observed on the northern flanks. West of the region is rimmed by a narrow margin of inclined foothill alluvial-pluvial, and partially marine plain (Lankaran lowland). The following geomorphology districts have been delineated in the region: Lankaran, Burovar, Yardimly, Peshtasar, Zuvard, and particularly Talish (ridge).

Geologically, the territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan belongs to the alpine fold belt.  It includes the southeastern parts of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and the Kura intermontane depression separating them, as well as various belts covering the Middle Caspian and South Caspian basins.

In the Republic of Azerbaijan, the thickness of the earth’s crust varies between 38-55 km. The maximum thickness was noted on the territory of the Greater Caucasus, the minimum — on the slopes of the Talysh mountains. The geological structure of the territory contains complexes of deposits of all geological periods, formed from sedimentary, volcanic-sedimentary, volcanic, and continental rocks, starting from the Precambrian and including deposits of the modern period. Eugeosynclinal, myogeosynclinal, and molasse deposits of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic ages are mainly widespread in the republic. A small part contains Paleozoic sub-platform deposits and metaphorical rocks of the Precambrian period.

The main structural units of the Republic of Azerbaijan are the mega-anticlinorium of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, the Kura intermontane depression. The meganticlinorium of the Greater Caucasus is a  complex structure; along with the ancients, young structures are also located in it.

All the described structures of the Greater Caucasus anticlines, abruptly disappearing in the Girdman River, are closed in a periclinal manner on the shores of the Caspian Sea in the east. In the area of ​​the Shemakha-Gobustan syncline, the continuation of the Vandam anticlines is considered the maximum gravity of the Yavanlydag-Sangachal. Here, between the rivers Agsu and Girdman, on the Maikop deposits, there is a thick (1500 meters) cover of chalk deposits (the amplitude of horizontal movement is  10 km), which is called the Baskal cover. In the west, between the Mazym and Girdman rivers, a significant southern part of the Vandam anticline is covered with stones.

The Kura intermontane depression was formed over a long geological period. However, it received its modern configuration only in the fourth period — Oliocene. Along the length of the basement of the depression, there is a stepped descent from west to east, as well as from north to south, and in the opposite direction. Being a derivative structure, located on the surface of stratal deposits, in an unusual way covers the underlying structural complex. There are two depressions of the transverse uplift: Sredne-Kura (the Upper Kura depression is located in the Georgian Republic) and Nizhne-Kura.

The front depression to the Lesser Caucasus stretches in a southeastern direction, parallel to the Somkheti-Agdam zone of the Lesser Caucasus. It is formed from sediments of the Paleogene flysch type and sediments of the Neogene-anthropogenic formation; clearly visible in the northeast along the Kursk gorge to Yevlakh, the Kura fault is limited by a flexural deviation passing along the Barda-Beylagan line. Despite the restriction in the west of the fault depression in front of the Lesser Caucasus, the southwestern boundary has an entrance and an exit.

The area of ​​the Talysh fault is directly a conditional continuation of the central part of the Lesser Caucasus. It is located on a pre-Alpine basement that has risen in the transverse direction. The fineness of the Upper Cretaceous is formed from carbonate, deposits of the Paleogene-lower flysch of the Eocene, and the Middle Eocene trachybasalts. Small intrusive masses of the site are located in the Paleogene and, being related to alkaline-basaltic, gabbro, diabase-diorite and gabbro-monzonite-syenic formations, together with volcanic rocks form a single magmatic complex.

Talysh megastructure consists of synclinal tectonic blocks of Jalilabad and Yardimly, as well as Burovarsky and Astara anticlinal tectonic blocks.

Azerbaijan is famous for its oil and gas fields. 2/3 of the territory of the republic is rich in hydrocarbons. The largest number of oil and gas fields is located on the Absheron Peninsula, in the shelf zone of the Caspian Sea, in the archipelago of Baku and Absheron. In addition, southeastern Shirvan, central Aran, Gobustan, Jeyranchol, Ajynour, Siyazan are rich in oil.

Naftalan oil is known all over the world for its medicinal properties.

The largest number of natural gas fields are located in Garadagh, the shelf zone of the Caspian Sea, the archipelago of Baku and Absheron. The Lesser Caucasus is rich in ore deposits. There are deposits of iron, titanium, gold, silver, copper, cobalt, chromite, poly metals, molybdenum, etc.

Of the nonmetallic deposits, Gobustan, Apsheron, and Tovuz limestone, Shakhtakhtinsky travertine (Nakhichevan AR), Dashkesan marble, Verkhne-Adjikend gypsum, and Hajiveli quartz sands are of great economic importance.

There are mineral springs with different chemical compositions in the territory of Azerbaijan. Due to the richness of their composition, the territory of Azerbaijan is called the “museum of mineral waters”. Istisu in Kalbajar region, and Badamli Sirab — in Nakhchivan AR is known far beyond the borders of Azerbaijan.

Districts such as Surakhany and Zykh of the Apsheron peninsula, Galaalty in the Divichinsky region, Turshsu in the Julfinsky region are famous for their medicinal waters. On the Talysh Mountains, on the southern and northeastern slopes of the Greater Caucasus, the advantage is made up of thermal waters.

Combustible minerals

The combustible minerals of the Azerbaijan Republic are oil, gas, shale, peat, etc.   Of these, oil and gas are of industrial importance. Oil is produced onshore and in the Caspian Sea. The Republic of Azerbaijan (region of the Absheron Peninsula) is one of the first oil countries in the world. Back in the 7^th-6^th centuries BC, oil was extracted and delivered to many countries of the world in Absheron. Until 1985, Azerbaijan produced approximately 1.2 billion tons of oil (25% — from offshore oil fields). The oil of the Azerbaijan Republic is low-sulfur and is a high-quality product. The density varies in a wide range (780-940 kg m³ ).

In Naftalan, from the Maikop and Akchagil deposits, oil, the only one in the world for its healing properties, is produced. The gases produced in the republic have a hydrocarbon composition. They are in the composition of oil, free (“gas cap”), in the form of pure gas. Over the past 30-35 years, many gas condensate fields have been explored and commissioned. At the moment, there are 8 oil and gas regions in the Republic (Apsheron, Shemakha — Gobustan, lower — Kura, Baku archipelago, Ganja, Yevlakh, Caspian and Kura interfluve — Gabyrry) and 2 promisings (Ajinour and Jalilabad) regions. In the Absheron, Shemakha-Gobustan, Nizhnekurinsky districts, as well as in the area of ​​the Baku archipelago, the main oil and gas group is a productive stratum. The thickness of this layer, consisting of the sequence of sand, sandstone, and clayey interlayers, reaches 4000 m (in some places even more).

Oil shale and brown coal of the Maikop-Apsheron age were found on the territory of the republic.

Ore minerals

These minerals (iron, aluminum, chromite, gold, silver, lead, zinc, cobalt, molybdenum ores, etc.) form various deposits in the mountainous parts of the republic.

Iron ores (magnetite, hematite) in the Republic of Azerbaijan are found in four sources: segrational-magmatic, skarn-magnetite (contact-metasomatic), hydrothermal-metasomatic, and sediments. Of these, only the deposits of the skarn-magnetite type — Dashkesan, South Dashkesan, and Demir — are of industrial importance. These deposits are formed from volcanic, piclastic. and volcanic-sedimentary rocks of Callovian, Kimmeridgian. Oxford ages. Crossing the Dashkesan syncline along the arrow, the granitoid of the same name is in close contact with the intrusion and is related to it by origin. The industrial reserve of Dashkesan iron ore deposits (category A + B + S) is 250 million tons.

Industrially significant cobalt ores (cobaltin, glaukodot) are known in the Dashkesan ore region. Here cobalt ores were formed both independently (Verkhne-Dashkesan deposit) and together with skrnovo-magnetite ores.

Gold deposits are most common in the Lesser Caucasus and the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic. The appraisal work of the gold deposits discovered in the basins of the Alinjachai and Kurekchay rivers was carried out, the initial reserves were calculated and the industrial significance was determined.

Chromite deposits (Goydarya, Kazymbinasy, Ipek, Khataveng) are mainly located in the Lachin and Kalbajar regions.

Manganese ore occurrences are located on the northeastern slope of the Lesser Caucasus (Mollajalilli, Dash Salakhli, etc.) and within the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic (Bichenak, Alyagi).

Copper ores in the Azerbaijan Republic in the formations of copper pyrite and copper-porphyry. The mineral composition of the copper-pyrite ores consists mainly of pyrite and chalcopyrite. In many cases, sphalerite and galena are found in the composition of the ore. In the composition of the copper-porphyry formation, in addition to copper, there are molybdenum and precious metals in small quantities. Ores of both formations are found in daughter quartzites in the Gadabay copper region. The most widespread is the porphyry copper formation. In addition to the Karabakh and Kharkhar deposits (Gadabay copper region), there are large manifestations of porphyry copper formation in this region. Stocks of stock have been exhausted in the Gadabay region; the eponymous copper pyrite deposit is known. Copper-porphyry occurrences (Damirli and Khachinchay) are noticeable in the copper region of Mehman. 

Copper-zinc deposits and occurrences (Dzhikh-Sagator, Mazymchay, Karabchay) are represented on the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus in terrigenous deposits of the Lower Jurassic period.

On the territory of the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic, ore mineralization of the copper-porphyry type is located mainly on the Meghri-Ordubad granitoid batholith (Diakhchay, Goygel, Heydag, etc.).

In the Balakan-Zakatala zone, there are industrially important deposits of lead and zinc (Filizchay, Katekh, Katsdag, etc.), as well as copper, cadmium, gold, silver, etc. elements.

Deposits and manifestations of molybdenum of the vein-like type are found in the Delidag (Teimuruchandag, Bagyrsag, etc.) and Ordubad (Paragachay, Diakhchay) copper regions.

The largest deposit of aluminum ore (alunite) is located in the Dashkesan region (alunite deposit in Zaglik). Alunite manifestations are known in Shamkir and Ordubad regions. The alunite deposit in Zaglik has been in operation since 1960. This deposit is the largest in Europe. At the Ganja aluminum plant, potassium fertilizers and soda are obtained from this ore.

In the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic, in the Permian deposits, manifestations of bauxite (Sadarak, Sharur) are known — the best raw material for aluminum.

Deposits and manifestations of mercury are widespread in the central part of the Lesser Caucasus (Kalbajar-Lachin zone). The reserves of the largest deposits have been calculated — Aghyatag, Shorbulag, Levchay (Kelbajar), Gilyazchay, and Narzanli (Lachin). Mercury (kinofar) is found in areas of acidic igneous rocks of various ages and compositions, most of all in volcanic deposits and volcanic rocks of the Upper Cretaceous period. Cinnabar is associated with pyrite, chalcopyrite, antimonite, magnetite, hematite, sphalerite, and other minerals.

Antimony does not form independent deposits. Antimony in the form of antimonite mineral in the Levchay mercury deposit forms deposits in the form of an ore mass.

The largest arsenic deposit in the Azerbaijan Republic is known as Gedabek (Bitdibulag energetic deposit) and Julfa (Daridag orpiment-realgar deposit). This deposit was operated until 1941. The ore is in the form of stock. The composition of the ore consists of orpiment, realgar, antimonite, arsenopyrite.

Small manifestations of tungsten in the form of scheelite are observed at the border of the Meghri-Ordubad granitoid plutons in the Ordubad and Lachin regions.

Non-metallic minerals

Nonmetallic minerals in the Republic of Azerbaijan play an important role in the overall balance of mineral resources. This group includes rock salt, gypsum, anhydrite, bentonite clay, building materials, pyrite, barite, semi-valuable and colored stones, dolomite, Icelandic spar, etc.

Rock salt deposits are located in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic (Nekhram, Duzdag, Pusyan). The deposits are located in Miocene sandstones, clay, limestone, and marl deposits. The balance reserve of the Nekhramovskoye field in the B + C1 category is 73,600 thousand tons, in the C2 category — 64,200 thousand tons. Potential resources are estimated at 2-2.5 billion tons. Commercial reserves of the Duzdag field in the A + B + C1 category are equal to 94,517 thousand tons, in the C2 category — 37,810 thousand tons.

Deposits of gypsum and anhydrite are formed in chalk deposits in the villages of Upper Agjakend and Manash of the Gadabay region. Commercial reserves of deposits located 120 km southeast of the city of Nakhichevan (Araz; gypsum) and around the city of Ganja (Gyadzh) in the category A + B + C1 amount to 40,632 thousand tons Many deposits and manifestations of bentonite clays are known (Gobustan, Goranboy, Sheki, etc.).

The largest deposit was discovered in the Gazakh region (Dash Salakhli). The deposit was formed from the impact of hydrothermal solutions with volcanic rocks of the Santonian age; industrial reserves amount to 84,553 thousand tons.

There are many building materials on the territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan. Industrial reserves of stone-cubic deposits (Guzdek, Dovlyatyarly, Dilagarda, Shakhbulag, Naftalan, Mardakyan, Dash Salakhli, Zayyam, Ayydag) in category A + B + C1 are equal to 295,836 thousand tons of facing stone (Gyulbyakht, Dashkesanlab, Shakhlytakhty) –  23951 thousand tons.

In Karadag there are deposits of raw materials suitable for the production of cement (limestone, clay, etc.). Clays used in the production of bricks are mined in many places. Limestone deposits are suitable for the production of flux and carbide with reserves of 8.3 thousand m 3 that have been identified in the Siyazan region. Volcanic tuff is a zeolite raw material and is located, and its deposit (Aydag) is located 7 km north-west of Tovuz. The prospective reserves of tuffs at the Ayydag deposit are 20 million tons.

There are almost 20 barite deposits and occurrences in the Azerbaijan Republic (Chovdar, Bashgishlag, Gushchu, Tonashen, Zailik, Azad, Chaikend). Deposits of the vein-like type.

Half-value and colored stones were found in the Dashkesan and Ordubad regions of the Lesser Caucasus (granite, amethyst), in Kedabek (tourmaline), and Santonian volcanic (chalcedony, agate, heliotrope). Agate collections are found in the Adjikend and Gazakh deposits, in the Upper Cretaceous volcanic in the form of secretions, nests, almonds, veins, and lenses. There are jewelry and technical types. Industrial reserves of the Adjikend group of agates are 286.8 tons. Of these, 65.8 tons are suitable for the jewelry industry.

Near the village of Nekhram (Nakhichevan AR) and in Boyanata Mountain (Gobustan) there are large reserves of dolomite. Quartz sands for the glass industry were found in Gobustan, the Absheron Peninsula, and the Guba region.

Displays of Icelandic spar (Nagorno-Karabakh) and large reserves of lithographic stone (Mirikend deposit, Nagorno-Karabakh) were discovered.

In Shemakhi, Kalbajar, and Khanlar regions there are manifestations of chemical paints.

Healing mud is located on the Absheron Peninsula, Lake Masazir, Gobustan, and the Lower Kura depression, in the areas of the eruption of mud volcanoes.

Underground water is considered to be one of the most important natural resources in Azerbaijan. Due to the differences in chemical composition, they fall into several types, such as service water, drinkable, medical waters, and waters used in various industrial sectors. 

High heat energy underground waters which temperature varies in the range from 60 to 115 C have been discovered in our country. Different types of natural environments have caused the various origin of water type and their spatial distribution. Mesozoic-Quaternary sedimentary deposits of various lithology, pervasive within the plain areas contain tremendous resources of artesian and ground waters used for everyday needs and drinking. Groundwaters are usually met within Quaternary deposits throughout the country. Due to active water exchange observed within the foothill areas, those waters occur at relatively deeper ranges. That water mineralization measures 1gr/l. and their chemical composition is referred to as the calcium-hydro carbonate type. Waterhead artesian basins have been discovered under inclined plain areas encased within Quaternary, Absheron, and Akchagil deposits within Ganja, Gazakh, Guba-Khachmaz, Garabagh, Shirvan zones, as well as within Sarmatian deposits in Nakhchivan AR. Those water mineralization measures about 1gr/l and chemical composition are referred to as calcium-hydro carbonate, and therefore they are used to supply people’s needs in towns and villages, and for service purposes.

Over 1000 cold and thermal springs have been discovered in the Azerbaijan Republic. Several sanatoriums (Istisu, Galaalty, Shih spit, Surakhany) and mineral water plants (Istisu, Sirab, Badamly, Vayhir, etc) have been built up around those water springs. Mineral water’s gas composition in Republic varies from carbon dioxide to hydrogen sulfide, to methane, to nitrogen and radon. Mineral waters distribution due to their gas composition is as follows: mineral waters with carbon dioxide gases were encountered within both Minor Caucasus (Msimsu, Shirlan, Turshsu) and Nakhchivan AR (Sirab, Badamly, etc), with hydrogen sulfide gases within Absheron Peninsula (Surakhany, Shih spit), Talish zone (Istisu) as well as within Great Caucasus southeast foothills (Chukhuryurd, Altyaghaj), nitrogen waters have been discovered within Astara-Lankaran (Meshasu), Salyan (Babazanan), and Masally (Arkivan) regions. Mineral waters containing radon gases have been discovered within Kalbajar (Baghirsag) and in Nakhchivan AR (Gahab). The mineral composition of those waters contains basically potassium, sodium, calcium, and hydrocarbonate, sulfur, chlorine anions. Those waters’ temperature varies in the range from 4 to 65 C.

Mud volcanoes are pervasive within the Republic of Azerbaijan. In local language, mud volcanoes are also known as “pilpila”, “yanardagh”, “bozdagh”, “akhtarma”, “gaynarja” etc. There are over 220 mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan (Absheron Peninsula, Gobustan, southeast Shirvan plain, Samur-Davachi plain terrane, both Absheron, and Baku Archipelago. The biggest are Galmas, Toraghay, Big Kanizadag, etc. Most of them have a cone shape. Their height varies in the range from 20 to 400 m, whereas base diameter may vary from 100 to 4500 m.

Besides onshore mud volcanoes, there are buried volcanoes and offshore mud volcanoes. There are over 140 offshore mud volcanoes within the Caspian Sea. Eight Islands within the Baku archipelago were generated by mud volcanic eruptions (Khara-Zira, Zanbil, Garasu, Gil, Sangi-Mughan, Chigmil, etc). Buried mud volcanoes have been encountered by exploration wells. Ancient activities of mud volcanoes were identified among various age stratigraphic units. It is suggested that mud volcanoes activity within the Republic of Azerbaijan about 25,000 years ago. Usually, mud volcanoes eruption begins with a subsurface rumble followed by a strong burst. Gases coming out to the surface from deeply buried formations get ignited and blaze up. Flame tongues may at times reach up to 1000m high (Garasu mud volcano).

Observations indicate that 50 mud volcanoes have burst about 200 times since 1810 in Azerbaijan. Lock-Batan mud volcano erupted 19 times during that period. Mud volcanoes erupt mud, solid rock fragments, gas, and water. Mud volcanoes outbursts contain over 100 minerals and up to 30 chemical microelements (such as barite, mercury, manganese, copper, barium, strontium, lithium, etc). The origin of mud volcanoes is associated with buried hydrocarbon deposits. Prolific oil and gas -condensate fields have been discovered in areas characterized by mud volcanoes development (Lock-Batan, Neft Dashlary, Garadagh, Mishovdagh, etc). Mud volcanoes outbursts are used as the medical row material.

In 2007, 52 mud volcanoes were granted the status of state nature reserves by establishing the Baku and Absheron Peninsula Group’s State Nature Reserve.

Azerbaijan saw devastating earthquakes since ancient times. The first report on “an overall devastating event that destroyed all towns and villages” is dated back to 427 AD. In 1139 AD, a devastating earthquake with the magnitude of IX took place in Azerbaijan. The town of Ganja was destroyed completely and gross casualties were reported. It is noteworthy that Goygol Lake had been generated as a result of that same earthquake. In the 19^th century, Shamakhy town suffered several devastating earthquakes. Several of them that occurred in 1856, 1861, 1872, and 1902 that are considered to be the strongest and devastating were estimated as strong as VIII and IX points of magnitude.

The first seismic station on the territory of Azerbaijan was founded by E. Nobel in 1902 in Baku after the Shamakhy earthquake. Afterward, seismic stations were set in different areas in Azerbaijan (Balakhany, Zurnabad, Shamakhy, Ganja, Nakhchivan, Lankaran, Chilov Island, and Mingechevir). 14 analog seismic stations were monitored by earthquakes in Azerbaijan. Starting from 2003 earthquakes in Azerbaijan have been monitored and still continued by means of a digital “Kinemetrix” system (that includes 14 stations) set according to the nation-wide leader Heydar Aliyev’s decree. Acquired data is transmitted through the satellite communication system operating in the real-time domain.

Seismic event monitoring by means of installed equipment has been carried out since last century’s 50-s. Since the beginning, such kinds of observations applied analog equipment using the photo-recording system. Those systems were replaced by a proprietary made magnetometer Mobile ACC station designed at Design Laboratory established at the Institute of Geology, ANAS. Since 1996 precision seismology observations have been carried out using a digital ISS telemetric system (manufactured in South Africa). In 2003 Institute of geology, ANAS established Seismic Monitoring and Geodynamic Center supported by Civil Investigations and Development Fond. The Center was equipped with eight modified mobile digital ISS stations.

Tangible earthquake seismic effects have studied by R. Aghamirzayev, S. Aliyeva, A. Hasanav, E. Gul, R. Jafarov, V. Kuznetsov, R. Shafadiyayev et al that enables to identify of earthquakes key parameters and to study their activity attenuation.

Earthquake triggering mechanism studies carried out by A. Aghalarova and S. Aghayeva within onshore and offshore Azerbaijan areas have subjected to severe and intricate strain. It was recognized that earthquake focuses are located within the earth’s crust and about 90% of them are associated with sedimentary rocks.

Seismicity quantitative and recurrence frequency analysis demonstrates significant seismic activity throughout Azerbaijan territory. Moreover, future earthquake events are expected to be moderate in terms of released energy.

Maps of Azerbaijan territory seismicity ranking on a scale of 1:500,000 have been compiled since 1937. State seismicity ranking maps have been compiled and approved by the Institute of Geology, ANAS in 1963, 1967, 1979, and 1989. Background seismicity rate shown on 1989 seismicity map is accepted as much as VII point of magnitude. IX point magnitude earthquake areas cover the Great Caucasus Balakan-Shamahy zone including both Ganja and Nakhchivan areasa and actually cover the Minor Caucasus too. Seismicity ranking maps bear overview features and therefore cannot be used as a reference guide for earthquake-durable building construction projects.

Azerbaijan is situated on the northern extremity of the subtropical zone, south-eastern Caucasus, and north-western part of Iran plateau. Its climatic diversity is caused by the complicated geographical location and landscape, the proximity of the Caspian Sea, the effect of the sun’s radiation, air masses of different origins, etc.

Landscape

As a predominantly mountainous country, Azerbaijan is surrounded by the Major Caucasus, Minor Caucasus, Talysh, and North Iranian Mountains. The Kur lowland between the Major and Minor Caucasus stretches to the Caspian Sea in the eastern part of the country. The Major Caucasus, situated in the north of the country and stretching from the north-west to the south-east, protects the country from direct influences of cold air masses, coming from the north. That leads to the formation of subtropical climate on most foothills and plains of the country. Other mountain chains, surrounding the country also have a great impact on air circulation. The complexity of a landscape causes the nonuniform formation of climatic zones and creates vertical climate zones, etc.

Solar Radiation

Plains and foothills are characterized by high solar radiation rates. The sun shines for 2200-2400 hours a year on the Kur-Araz lowland, Apsheron peninsula, and other plains and foothills, while the indicator totals 2600-2800 in the plains around Araz in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic. Due to increased cloudiness in the mountainous regions, only 1900-2200 hours per year are the sun shining. The sun is bright during 2200-2500 hours a year at an altitude of over 3,000 meters. The total annual radiation equals 128-132 kcal per 1 sq. cm. It declines towards the mountains (down to 120-124 kcal-cm², at a height of 500-600 meters above sea level), then gradually increases and reaches 140-150 kcal-cm² at a height above 3000 meters of Major and Minor Caucasus. The total amount of solar radiation affecting Araz plains in Nakhichevan totals 148-150 kcal-cm², it increases in mountains and reaches 152-160 kcal-cm². The radiation on the country’s plains and foothills amounts to 40-50 kcal-cm² (in Lankaran -50-60 kcal-cm², in mountains-15-25 kcal-cm²⁾.

Circulation of air masses

The formation of climate in Azerbaijan is influenced by cold air masses of arctic (Kara and Scandinavian anticyclones) and temperate (Siberian anticyclones) and maritime (Azores maximum), hot air masses of tropical zones (subtropical anticyclone and southern cyclones), Central Asian anticyclones and local weather conditions. Regarding landscape diversity in Azerbaijan, air masses have different ways to enter the country. Thus, cold continental and maritime air masses though not preventing the hot masses from entering the country from the south yet cause changes in some properties of hot air masses and influence the dynamics of atmospheric conditions.

Temperature

The temperature regime and its distribution throughout Azerbaijan is regular and depends on the features of air masses, entering to the country, the regional landscape and proximity to the Caspian Sea. The Caspian Sea causes temperatures in the maritime areas (20 km away from the sea) to decline in the summer and raises it in the winter. At the same time, it relatively softens the influence of hot and dry air masses coming from Central Asia. The average annual temperature totals 14-15 C in the Kur-Araz lowland, the coastal regions south to the Absheron peninsula and in Lankaran lowland. The temperature declines in the direction to mountains and amounts to 4-5 C at a height of 2000 meters and 1-2 C at 3000 meters height.

The temperature does not fall below zero even in the coldest month of the year (January) in plains and foothills. It even totals 3-4 C on the Absheron peninsula and areas and islands south of it. Temperature decreases with altitude and makes up -5-6 C -7 C in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic) at a height of 2000 meters above sea level, while at a height of 3000 meters it amounts to nearly -12-13 C. In the hottest month of a year (July) the average temperature mainly equals 26-27 C in the Kur-Araz lowland, while in other plains and foothills it does not fall below 24 C. At a height of 2000 meters in the mountains, the temperatures total 14-16 C and at a height above 3000 meters they do not fall below 8-10 C., The absolute temperature maximum (46 C) and minimum (-32 C) are registers on the plains around Araz in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic, characterized by its continental climate.

Precipitation

Precipitations are mainly connected with the entry of air masses to Azerbaijan. The interaction between the air masses and landscape and the Caspian Sea predetermines the volume of precipitations and their annual distribution. Average annual precipitation is lowest (below 150-200 mm) in Southeastern Gobustan and on the south coast of the Absheron peninsula. Annual precipitation is lower than 300 mm in the centre and east of the Kur-Araz lowland, on the plains around the Araz in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic, Qobustan and Absheron. The level of precipitation gradually increases from the Caspian Seashore to the west, from plains to mountains. Precipitation increases with altitude till a definite height in mountains (2600-2800 meters in Major and Minor Caucasus, 2600-3000 meters in Nakhichevan, 200-600 meters in Talysh) then gradually declines. In this region maximum annual precipitation maximum on southern slopes of Major Caucasus totals 1400-1600 mm, northeastern slope-800 mm, Minor Caucasus and Nakhichevan AR-800-900 mm, in Talysh mountains-1700-1800 mm.

Unlike other mountain areas, in the Talysh Mountains, the volume of precipitation declines with altitude and at high altitudes, it is even lower than 250-300 mm. Though precipitation mainly falls in the hot part of the year (April-October), summer months are dry and at that period precipitations make up 5-15% of the annual norm even in the Lankaran-Astara zone, notable for the highest level of precipitations. The number of days of precipitation falling does not exceed 60-70 days per year in the Kur-Araz lowland and plains around the Araz in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic, while at the central part of the southern slope of Major Caucasus the number reaches 170 days. The highest daily maximum of precipitations has been registered at the southern slope of Major Caucasus (148 mm, Alibey) and in Talysh mountains (334 mm, Belser). The intensity of rainfalls reaches 1-2 and even 3 mm per minute. On the plains, rains make up the 4/5 part of precipitation, while in mountains they account for 1/3 of its part. The snow blanket is short-lived and sometimes it does not fall for several years in the plains. The areas, accounting for the highest level of snow, are at the southern slope of Major Caucasus. The days when snow fully covers the ground total 80-120 in middle highlands and reaches 250 days in the mountains. The snow is eternal on the highest alp of Major Caucasus.

Humidity

Absolute annual humidity totals 11-12 lb in the Kur-Araz lowland and 14-15 lb on the Caspian Sea coast. In mountains, it declines with altitude and equals 9 lb at a height of 1000 m and 7 lb at a height of 2000 meters. Absolute humidity is relatively low in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic and at definite altitudes, it is by 1-1.5 lb lower from other regions of Azerbaijan. Absolute humidity is the highest in the hottest period of a year (July-August). It totals 20-24 lb at the coastal regions and the Ganikh-Ayrichay valley and 8-10 lb at a height of 3000 meters. In January the level of humidity on plains equals 6 lb, at a height of 1500 meters it’s approximately 3 lb. At that period the lowest level of humidity is registered in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic and on plains (4lb) while in the mountains the level is even lower.

Annual Relative Humidity is the highest on the Caspian Sea shore (75-80%) and it reaches its minimum in of Nakhichevan AR and Major and Minor Caucasus (55-65%). In summer the relative humidity is the lowest in Nakhichevan AR (35-50%), at the highest altitudes of Talysh mountains (50-55%) and in the Kur-Araz lowland (50-60%). Relative humidity reaches its top on the seashore and highest altitudes of Major and Minor Caucasus (60-85%). Through winter months relative humidity is maximal on the seashore and minimal in the highlands.

Evaporation

The highest annual evaporation is typical of the Nakhichevan AR, plains around the Araz (over 1200-1400 mm) and the Kur-Araz plain (1000-1200 mm). It ranges from 800 to 1000 mm on other plains and lowlands of Azerbaijan. In mountains, evaporation decreases with altitude. On middle uplands, possible evaporation falls down to 300-400 mm in mountains-to 200 mm.

Cloudiness. The regime and allocation of cloudiness are connected with air circulation and the orography of the area. The cloudiness is maximal in high mountains (over 2000 meters, in summer and spring), mid highlands and at foothills (2000-500 meters).

Winds

Fions (hot and dry winds) are typical for mountain areas in cold months of the year, while winds are observed in plains and foothills in hot months. Average annual wind speed equals 5 m/s in the country. However, it ranges from 6 to 8 m/s on the coastal areas of Absheron peninsula. The days when the wind blows with a speed of 15 m/s and more total 100-145 in this region. Ganja-Kazakh plain is characterized by strong winds (25-70 days) Strong winds are less frequent in other regions of Azerbaijan.

Taking into consideration distribution and features of the regime of weather temperature and atmosphere precipitations, as well humidity circumstance in the Azerbaijan Republic, 8 of 11 climate patterns of the Earth (according to V.V.Keppen) are determined here. Many of these patterns are divided into semi-types.

1. Semi-desert and dry steppe climate covers mainly Central lowland districts (fields in Kur concavity, the height of which is up to 400 m), Caspian zone from end of Samur River to Gizilaghaj gulf, plains of Nakhchivan AR along the Araz river, closed mountainous concavities of Talish Mountains (from 1000 m). Annual precipitations make 15-50% of possible evaporation. Winter is mostly hot (cold in plains along the Araz River and closed mountainous concavities of Talish Mountains). Summer is red-hot, some days temperature is higher than 40 degrees.

2. Mild-hot climate, winter if which is dry, covers lower mountainous zone (in height up to 1000 m) of south hills of Great Caucasus, Ganikh-Eyrichay concavity (200-500 m), north and east hills of Small Caucasus (in height of 400-1500 m). Annual precipitations make 50-100% of possible evaporation. Winter is mild, with low precipitations, summer is mild-hot.

3. Mild-hot climate with dry summer. Mostly covers the Lankaran-Astara region. Annual precipitations make 100-150% and more of possible evaporation. Winter is mild, summer is mild-hot and dry, autumn with high precipitations. It rains less from May till mid-August and this season is dry often, artificial irrigation is applied.

4. Cold climate with dry winter covers south-east hills of Great Caucasus (1000-2700 m) and middle and high mountainous parts of Small Caucasus (1400-2700 m). Annual precipitations make 75-100% of possible evaporation. Summer is cool, winter is mild.

5. Cold climate with dry summer. Covers middle and high mountainous area of Nakhchivan AR (1000-3000 m). Annual precipitations make 50-100% of possible evaporation. Winter is cold and snowy, summer is cool.

6. Mild-hot climate with equal distribution of precipitations covers mountainous forestlands in the south (600-1500 m) and north-east (200-500 m) hills of Great Caucasus. Annual precipitations make 75-100% of possible evaporation in south hills and 50-100% in northeast hills. Winter is mild, summer is mild-hot.

7. Cold climate with rich precipitations in all seasons is characteristic for south hills of Great Caucasus only (1500-2700 m). Covers upper forest, sub-alpine, and alpine zones. Annual precipitations are more than 150-200% of possible evaporation. Winter is cold, summer is cool.

8. Mountainous tundra climate covers the areas of Great and Small Caucasus higher than 2700 m and of Nakhchivan AR higher than 3200 m. Annual precipitations are more than 100-200% of possible evaporation. Winter and summer are cold. In some places, snow does not melt till the next winter.

In terms of the total number of species, the flora of Azerbaijan is much richer, in contrast to other republics of the South Caucasus. The plant species found in the republic make up 66% of the total number growing in the Caucasus.

The richness of the flora and the diversity of the vegetation cover of the Republic of Azerbaijan is associated with its physical-geographical and natural-historical conditions, as well as a complex history formed under the influence of remote floristic areas.

The Republic of Azerbaijan is also rich in relict rocks dating back to the Tertiary period, which can be found in all zones, especially in the Talish zone. These include the iron tree, Lankaran acacia, chestnut oak, Caucasian persimmon, butcher, boxwood, etc. The republic has 240 species of endemic (local) plants.

All types of habitats are found in the flora of Azerbaijan — ancient forest, boreal, steppe, xerophilous, desert, adventive plant species. Samples of the ancient forest area are widespread in Talysh, the boreal type — in the highlands of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, in smaller numbers — in the lower mountain belt. The xerophytic, Caucasian, steppe, and desert types became widespread in the Kura-Araz lowland and in other lowland and foothill regions of the republic. The adventive areal type is quite rare. In the Kura-Araz lowland, the Caspian zone, and in other lacustrine, wetland, swampy areas of the plains, there is varied and variegated vegetation.

Along rivers and canals, in swampy areas, locally on the plains, there are reed thickets of a cosmopolitan composition. There are many such plants as tall (grass), foxtail, cattail, millet, broom. You can also find thickets of a tall species of savanna type eriantus.

In the Kura-Araz lowland, in areas with chal-meadow-like vegetation, chayyr, licorice and tuberkamysh are widespread. In the Karabakh lowland, thickets of kermek, buckwheat, chisel, loosestrife, and iris are more common, which form both separate thickets and are found in other phytocenoses.

In stagnant waters and in the coastal strip (especially in Agzybirdzhala), reeds, cattails, pondweed, and others predominate. Reed thickets are also characteristic of the plains.

In the marshy areas of the Lankaran lowland, the wetland formations of the pond, iris, uruti, and hornwort are especially widespread. Dried bogs are characterized by plants of mint, chastuha, buttercup, butcher’s broom.

Wetland vegetation is found in bogs, lakes, and ponds of the lower, middle, and high-mountain zones. Especially in the subalpine zones, wetland vegetation is widespread (there are over 100 swamps and lakes).

In the Kura-Araks lowland, in the Caspian zone, and other plains, desert and semi-desert types of vegetation prevail. Desert saltwort vegetation is widespread in the vicinity of Lokbatan, in Eastern Shirvan, on Mugan. On pastures in the coastal part of the Caspian Sea, and especially on the Kura-Araks lowland, there are sarsazanniks, forming a shallow desert.

Deserts with salt grates are widespread here, where 5-6 types of ephemerals are found. On the plains of Eastern Shirvan and in the foothill parts of the republic, territories with sveda occupy a large place. Three types of saltwort in wide areas of the Kura-Araz lowland form productive semi-deserts. Especially the mountain hodgepodge at the foot of the mountains, both separately and with wormwood, form hodgepodge-wormwood deserts, and in the most developed lands — semi-deserts. Woody hodgepodge is found on not very saline lands; the composition of the season is rich in dozens of different ephemera and ephemeroid plants. The woody hodgepodge forms semi-desert thickets mainly with wormwood, camel thorns, and malt. In general, there are 22 species of saltwort in the republic, many of which form specific formations. Solyanka can be found in the not very saline Sheki meadows. Wormwoods are characteristic of one of the most widespread semi-desert vegetation, developing on slightly saline soils and sierozem soils. Often, wormwood, mixing with saltwort and perennial grasses, forms mixed semi-desert formations. In all places overgrown with wormwood, there are 30-35 and sometimes 50-55 ephemeral and ephemeroids. For example, bulbous bluegrass, Japanese bonfire, oriental mortuk, hard chaff, sagittarius, small alfalfa, alfalfa blue, etc. are constant components of wormwood. In wormwood, you can sometimes find shrubs. In the coastal zone and on the sands that emerged from the sea waters, psammophytic-littoral species of wormwood, astragalus, Persian bindweed, Caspian melilot, as well as hundreds of ephemerals and ephemeroids, grow. Although many valuable and rare plant species on the sandstones of Apsheron are short-lived, they actively develop in spring and wither quickly. In steppe and dry steppe phytocenoses, xerophytic grasses predominate. Highland xerophytic plants often combine with steppe species to form specific formations.

In the arid regions of the Lesser Caucasus (Nakhichevan AR, Jebrail, Zangilan), in the steppes of the Greater Caucasus, xerophytes are found, i.e. freegan, shiblyak, astragalus, acantholimons, sometimes junipers and juniper — pistachio groups. Freegans in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic at an altitude of 1000-1500 meters above sea level create independent formations (thickets). More than 300 plant species are found in these formations. In arid regions, species of thyme create formations. Here grows mint, buckthorn, curl. You can also find plants such as euphorbia, yarrow, barberry. Shiblyak is widespread in the republic in the form of meadows — hold a tree, buckthorn, cotoneaster, almonds, pyracantha, wild pear. Here, the specific formations are created by the vesicle, participating in the formation of upland xerophytic vegetation. Mastic pistachio, juniper, and stone tree form the formations characteristic of the republic.

In the northwestern part of the republic, on the steppe plateau and in the forests of the Eldar plain, the Eldar pine, an endemic relic of the Tertiary period, has preserved its naturalness. The presence of juniper, pistachio, grip-tree, and another 30-35 higher spore species here suggests that these places can be attributed to mountain-xerophytic vegetation.

The basis of the preserved tugai forests growing along the coastal strips of the Kura, Araz, Ganikh, and Gabyrry rivers is poplar, willow, elm, elm, here, tamarisk, and pomegranate.

In the mixed forests of the valleys of some mountain rivers, sea buckthorn, oak, willow, sumac, scumpia, comb, here, barnyard, pomegranate, dog rose, blackberry is widespread. Sea buckthorn is most common on the right and left banks of the Shin, Kish, Demiraparan, Turian, Goychay, Agsu, Velveli, and Terter rivers. On Talysh, in river valleys, lapina and alder form thickets. Another type of alder, Alnus barbata, is most typical for the swampy forests of Talysh. In the forests, the local endemic — the Girkan figs form characteristic formations together with ivy, elderberry, heartwood, bluegrass, iris, hedgehog, and swamp.

In the Guba-Khachmaz and Karabakh zones, as well as in the Alazan-Ayrichai depression, flat forest areas of a local form are widespread. The basis of these forests is downy oak, elm, hawthorn, medlar, etc. Along with them, linden trees, ash trees are widespread in the forests of the Alazan-Airichay depression, and among climbing plants, windweed, ivy, and wild grapes. In lowland forests, there are about a dozen different forms of fluffy oak.

In the Talysh low-lying forests, such valuable relict species as ironwood and chestnut-leaved oak grow. In addition to them, there are Caucasian hornbeam, 2 species of zelkova, elm, poplar, and forests of the Hyrcanian type. In the lower tier of these forests, there are evergreen shrubs — butcher and dana. Caucasian persimmon on damp hills creates special thickets. On Talysh, Caspian gleditsia predominates. Here Lankaran acacia, ironwood, linden, and other species form mixed forests. At a certain height from the level of the Caspian Sea, maple, together with beech oriental species, forms dense tall forests. In the lower tier of forests of this type, yew, boxwood, and, in part, dana, form specific formations.

In the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, at an altitude of 600-1800 meters above sea level, deciduous forests are widespread. These forests are dominated by Georgian oak, oriental beech, oriental oak, and others. Beech forests in this zone form highly productive, diverse mixed forests. Along with beech and oak, in these forests there are linden, hornbeam, 5-6 species of maple, especially along with oriental oak, the trautfetter linden also grows. In dense beech forests, the herbaceous cover is absent. In the case of a more scattered type of beetles, a herbaceous cover develops here together with shrubs. In the undergrowth, there are yellow rhododendron, blackberry, elderberry, shrimp, and various types of cereals. There are forest parks in the alpine zones (1800-2000 meters). Together with subalpine meadows and tall grasses, they form subalpine woodlands.

The highlands are characterized by the eastern oak, on the northern slopes there are birch forests with twisted trees due to avalanches, and on the mountain slopes of the Greater Caucasus, rhododendron and occasionally the Caucasian mountain ash. Coniferous forests have slightly spread on the territory of the republic: in the Eldar grove — Eldar pine, in the Greater and Lesser Caucasus — forests of hooked pine. The hooked pine forms small forests in the Bulanygchay basin and in the vicinity of Lake Goygel (1600 m above sea level). On Lake Goygol, on large rocky cliffs, together with birch, it forms a mixed forest. Of the conifers, the yew and juniper species have spread in the mountain-forest zones. In the subalpine belt of the northwestern part of the Greater Caucasus, especially in the Zagatala-Balakan zone, the Caucasian rhododendron is widespread.

At an altitude of 1800-3200 meters above sea level, in multi-species alpine and subalpine meadows, steppe and meadow plants prevail. Depending on the features of the relief of highlands, mountain slopes, and other factors, various formations develop here. In the subalpine belt, tall grasses form specific formations. There are especially many flowering plants such as cow parsnip, yarrow, hedgehog, meadowsweet, reed grass, sorrel, groundwort, nettle, sweet clover. In the subalpine belt, moderately humid, mesophilic, steppe, xerophytic meadows, which are very diverse, are widespread. The basis of subalpine meadows is a white-grass and red bonfire, Caucasian thin-legged, purple barley, alpine bluegrass, and a number of three-leafed clover species, geranium, cuff, elecampane, feverfew, veronica, bedstraw, goatgrass, primrose, plantain, and dozens of other species. About one thousand plant species are widespread in subalpine meadows.

Alpine meadows are widespread on the slopes of high mountains, peaks, cliffs. Despite the fact that the species composition here is relatively less represented than in subalpine meadows, they are distinguished by the biodiversity of low-growing plants. On alpine meadows with fine earthy substrates, alpine plantain grows, and on stony substrates, alpine carpets consist of sibbaldia, bellflower and macrotomy.

The diversity of various types of animals, which inhabit and populate a defined ground or water area, is the animal kingdom. The first reports on the richness and diversity of animal life in Azerbaijan can be found in travel notes of Eastern travelers.

Animal carvings on architectural monuments, ancient rocks, and stones survived up to the present times. The first information on the animal kingdom of Azerbaijan was collected during the visits of naturalists to Azerbaijan in the 17^th century.

Unlike fauna, the concept of animal kingdom covers not only the types of animals but also the number of individual species. The animal kingdom of Azerbaijan is very rich, partly due to the diversity of its natural complexes. There are 97 species of mammals, 357 species of birds, 67 species of reptiles and amphibians, 97 species of fish, and over 15 thousand species of invertebrates in Azerbaijan.

The rapid development of all spheres of economics and human activity has led to an increasingly negative impact on the environment, including the inefficient usage of natural resources. As can be seen in many other countries, Azerbaijan is interested in finding solutions to the problems regarding environmental protection and rational utilization of natural resources.

In support of Azerbaijan’s environmental protection goals, a number of important laws, legal documents and state programs, all of which conform to European law requirements, have been developed and approved in order to improve the ecological situation in the country. These measures have been undertaken within the framework of the corresponding state programs to solve the urgent ecological problems at the very foundation of development principles.

The internal resources of the Republic of Azerbaijan are however insufficient in order to resolve many of their environmental problems that have been in dire need for some time now.

The following are the principal ecological problems of Azerbaijan

• The pollution of water resources by way of introduction of contaminated water, including transnational pollution;
• The supply of low-quality water to inhabited regions, the loss of freshwater prior to its delivery to the end consumers, insufficient development of sewer systems;
• Air pollution from industrial plants and transport vehicles;
• Degradation of soil (erosion, desertification, etc.);
• Improper regulation of industry and housing, as well as hazardous solid wastes;
• Decline in biological diversity;
• The decline in forest reserves and fauna, especially fish reserves

Biological diversity is the sum of all species of microbial organisms, plants, and animals on the face of Earth. Azerbaijan possesses the richest natural reserves among all other Caucasian countries. The nine biomes of Azerbaijan are home to some 4500 species of multicellular plants, accounting for 64% of the plant kingdom of the whole Caucasian region and 24% of that of the former Soviet Union. 168 species of plants out of 600 belong exclusively to the flora of Azerbaijan, while 432 — to the Caucasian flora.

140 rare and endangered species are included in the Red Book of Azerbaijan.

18 thousand species of animals are registered in Azerbaijan. The contemporary fauna of Azerbaijan includes 97 species of mammals, 357 species of birds, nearly 100 species of fish, 67 species and subspecies of reptiles and amphibians, and nearly 15 thousand species of insects.

The Red Book of Azerbaijan includes 14 mammal species (gazelle, leopard, bezoar goat, mountain sheep, etc), 36 bird species (partridge, bustard, shrike, little bustard, spoon-bill, etc), 13 species of amphibians and reptiles (triton, Syrian garlic frog, Esculapus snake), 5 fish species ( eel, trout, Zosterops, etc) and 40 insect species and subspecies (Talysh eodorcadion, Apollo, Talysh Brahmaea, etc.). Such a diversity of biological species is due to the country’s geological history and various climate conditions.

Environmental protection, exploration of nature, and creation of preserves play an important role in the preservation of the country’s ecosystem. Rare and endangered species of animals and plants are protected in specially designed areas.

Azerbaijan covers an area of 86.6 million hectares, of which 1213.7 thousand hectares are forests. Forestlands of 989.5 thousand hectares form 1.4% of the total land area of Azerbaijan. There are approximately 0.12 hectares of forestland per capital, which is four times (0.48 hectares) lower than the average figures worldwide.

Forests in Azerbaijan belong to group I for their important degree and are spread differently throughout the regions of the country. One of the specific features of these regions is the availability of various natural resources, such as mineral water, energy, and fertile soil. The forests serve a function that no other natural components can. Forests are the natural matters that promote the stabilization of such important biosphere components as water, air, and soil.

The forests of Azerbaijan (85%) mainly cover the slopes of the Major Caucasus, Minor Caucasus, and Talysh Mountains.

Most of the forests have rather valuable tree types (iron tree, beech tree, hornbeam, lime, maple, etc). The characteristic trees of the forests and their diversity are determined by the climate, soil, and topography of the region.

The forest policy of the country is managed by the Department for Forests Development under the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources.

The department takes care of the protection and preservation of forests, restoration and planting of forests, preparation of planting stocks, storage of forest trees and bushes, preservation of forests, and other forestry actions, which includes the efficient and purposeful utilization of forest reserves and related spheres of agriculture. It also works on the improvement of the protection of forest soil, water preservation, a clean environment, sanitarian and hygienic actions, preservation of species of animals in the forests, ensuring biodiversity, the establishment of cultural, scientific, and recreational complexes throughout nature, as well as the protection and expansion of the gene pool in the growth of forest seed.

The Department for the development of forestry controls 34 establishments for regional forest protection and restoration, 3 institutions of forestation, and 3 establishments for forest seeding (The scientific research of forestry institute and the center of the struggle against pests and diseases.).

Since the establishment of the Ministry in March 2001, the number of measures conducted for restoration of forests, forestation, cultivation of planting stock, seed storage, and others has increased.

By decree of the National leader of the Azerbaijan Republic of December 26, 2001, The Ministry of Ecology and Natural Reserves was instructed to develop and submit for consideration of the Cabinet of Ministers of Azerbaijan, the National program for the restoration of fields and expansion of their area through attracting state and regional administrative bodies and scientific societies.

The decree also stipulates for the Ministry to develop a National program for rational use of all the year-round pasture and hayfields, prevention of soil erosion on mountain hills, valleys, and ravines and the salinization of lands in foothill and plain regions for the stable ecological, socio-economic development and the development of cattle-breeding and farming and to introduce is to the authorized body.

The draft program “On forest restoration and expansion”, developed by the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources for the implementation of the Presidential Decree with certain alterations and additions was approved by Presidential Decree No 1152 of February 18, 2003.

The program stipulated for the restoration of forests and forestation in all regions on the area of 69700 hectares in 2003-2008.

Since the establishment, the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Reserves has initiated large scale projects in the formation of forest preserves in arid areas, tree planting in the outskirts of cities, by the sides of roads and highways, the establishment of new tracks of forests, and restoration of forests by conducting consequent and proper ecological policy beginning from May 2001.

Newly established enterprises for forestation and Enterprises for Forest Protection and Restoration, operating in various regions of the country, conducted activity on forest restoration and planted new forests on the area of 7753 hectares in 2002 and the territory of 8721 hectares in 2003 in frames of the National Program. These indicators are by 1.6-1.9 higher than the volume of work, carried out in 2000-2001 accordingly.

The purposeful actions in the sphere of planting materials creation have been undertaken as well.

Thus, 12 million planting materials and 32 million planting materials were grown in 2002 and 2003 accordingly. The indicator is by 2-5 higher from that of 2000-2001 accordingly.

The forest restoration and forestation area were forecasted to reach 9000 hectares while the amount of planting materials-35 million in 2004. As a result of organizing measures, 40 million planting materials have been created, new forests been planted on the area of 3700 hectares while measures, aiming to assist in the restoration of natural resources have been conducted on the area of 5403.

Forest restoration actions in 10131 ha, forest sowing works in 2746 ha were implemented in 2013. Measures to help the natural restoration of forests were accomplished in 7385 ha.

According to the final reports of 2005, in the last reporting year, reforestation measures were carried out on 9737 hectares against 9500 hectares of reforestation measures. Of this, 3,860 hectares is afforestation. The remaining 5,877 hectares are natural recovery assistance measures. 35 mln. 38 million against the number. pieces of planting material were grown. These figures are 2-2.5 times higher than in 2000-2001 for reforestation measures, and 6-10 times higher for the cultivation of planting material.

In accordance with the requirements of the “National Program on Reforestation and Enlargement”, in 2006 the plans and forecasts of reforestation measures were increased to 10,000 hectares. Currently, work is underway in this direction.

In 2013, reforestation measures were carried out on 10,131 hectares, including afforestation and sowing on 2,746 hectares. Measures to support the natural restoration of forests were carried out on 7,385 hectares.

National parks are the public lands or bodies of water of special environmental, historical, and other importance, which bear the status of governmental institutions.

Name: Hirkan National Park
Year of foundation: 2004
Area (hectare): 40358
Location: Within the territory of Lankaran and Astara administrative districts.
Brief description: The Hirkan National Park is in the Lankaran natural region and protects the landscapes of humid subtropics. The Hirkan National Park consists of a valley area of Lankaran lowland and a mountainous landscape of Talysh Mountains. The Lankaran natural region has rich fauna and flora including many rare and endemic species. Flora of the park consists of 1, 900 species including 162 endemics, 95 rare, and 38 endangered species. There is the iron tree, three-thorned acacia (Gleditschia tricanthos), Zelkova, Quercus Castaneifolia, Fircus hyrcanys, etc. There are many endemic are rare animals, particularly, among the representatives of ground mollusks and non-flying insects. Birds’ endemism is well represented, up to subspecies level, while the species level has a relatively poor representation. The main protected objects are the natural complexes of lowland and low mountainous forest areas of the Lankaran natural region, including the unique well-preserved plot of lower forest, the ecosystem of the rare forest of the Hirkan type.

Name: Shirvan National Park
Year of foundation: 2003
Area (hectare): 54373,5
Location: Within the territory of Salyan administrative district as well as Garadagh and Neftchala districts of Baku city.
Brief description: The Shirvan National Park was established on the base of the Shirvan State Reserve founded in 1969 and neighboring areas. The reserve‘s activity is focused on the protection and reproduction of the Persian gazelle (Gazella sulgutturosa), waterfowl birds, and typical plant biotypes of the Shirvan Lowland. The area is 25800 hectares, of which 3500 hectares are water reservoirs. The territory of the park used to be at the bottom of the Caspian and at present it is an accumulative plain, which is 20-25 m below sea level with a slight increase in the relief westwards. In terms of climate, the park lies in an area of moderate warm semi-desert and arid steppe. Summers are hot and dry and winters are moderate and dry. In the park, there are several types of vegetation. The desert type is represented by Halocnemum, Halostachys, and Salicornia formations developed on solonchaks. Halocnemum vegetation occupies about 40% of the territory of the park. The main species is the Halocnemum strobilaceous. The Halostachys phylogenesis has a more complicated structure and a richer species composition than halocnemum. At the tops of the hills, halostachys grows and the slopes are covered by cereals and motley grass from the ephemeral group. Salicornia vegetation has developed in a small area of the central part of the park as a result of wet salines and the high level of groundwaters. As well as Salicornia europaea, there is also rankenive and tonkokhstnik.

The semi-desert type of vegetation is represented by formations of sveda and ephemeral wormwood. The latter formation, which occupies 40% of the park area, has the richest species composition. Wormwood dominates, and among ephemera 20-25 species are met, including mast cereals: Poa bulbosa, Bromus, wall barley (Hordeum leporinum), etc. Meadow-type vegetation is developed in the park on chals (humid lowerings on the relief). The herbage is two-layered and is formed of Alhagi (first layer) and Aeluropus repens (second layer). In some places, Artemisia and wall barley (Hordeum leporinum) are found. The fauna is poorly studied. Among amphibians there are green toad, Hylidae and lake frog. Among reptiles there are swamp, Caspian and Mediterranean turtles, lizard, water snake (Natrix natrix) and water snake, Vipera lebetina and others. The ornitofauna is poorly studied, but according to the existing data, there is bustard (Otides), Francolinus, little bustard (Otis tetrax), white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), steppe eagle (Aquila nipalensis), peregrine (Falco peregrinus), saker falcon (Falco cherrug) and Pterocletes orientalis. In winter, there are many migratory birds on the water bodies: gray goose (Anser anser), mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchus), pintail (Anas acuta), and others. Among rare mammals species, there are Persian gazelle (Gazella sulguturossa), wild boar, wolf, jackal, jungle cat (Felis chaus), fox, badger, European hare, and others. Persian gazelle (Gazella sulguturossa), Francolinus francolinus, bustard (Otidis), little bustard (Otis tetrax), white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), steppe eagle (Aquila nipalensis), peregrine (Falco peregrinus), saker falcon (Falco cherrug), and Mediterranean turtle are listed in Red Book. The main protected objects are the natural semi-desert complexes of the south-eastern Shirvan, with the world’s biggest population of Persian gazelle (Gazella sulgutturosa) and the water-wading ecosystem, which is a place of nesting, a migration route, and wintering area for many valuable bird species (western part of the Shor-Gel Lake).

Name: Agh-Gol National Park
Year of foundation: 2003
Area (hectare): 17924
Location: Within the territory of Agjabedi and Beylagan administrative districts.
Brief description: The Agh-Gol National Park was established for the preservation of migrating routes, areas of wintering and nesting of waterfowl and water birds, as well as for breeding of commercial fish species. The area of 4400 hectares covers the water area of Lake Ag-Gel. Lake Ag-Gel (white lake) reserve is situated in the Mill steppe of the Kura-Araks Lowlands, it may be called an “ornithological oasis”: this is not only a reserved area but one of the most important places of wintering in the Republic. The Mill Steppe surrounding the lake is a slightly hilly accumulative plain, where mostly semi-desert and arid steppe type: summer is warm and dry, winter is cool. Twenty fish species inhabit the reserve: pike, erythroculter, mongolicus, carp, and others. Earlier, when the lake was connected with the River Kura, the Ichthiofauna was richer. Among amphibians, green toad, Hylidae, lake trod and others inhabit the reserve. Among reptiles, the Caspian and swamp turtles, common and water grass snakes occur. There are 134 bird species in the orilitofauna of the reserve, including 89 nesting birds. There are more than 30 specimens of Charadriiformes and 24 specimens of Anseriformes. Among the birds occurring here, there are species included in the “Red Book” — Francolinus, white-tailed eagle, white pelicans (Pelecanus onocrotalus), Dalmatian pelicans (Pelecanus Crispus), and others. Among mammals, represented by 22 species, wild boar, coypu and jungle cat (Felis chaus) are common, Unique colonial nesting places of Ciconifonnes and Totimplate birds (Pelecanifonnes) are preserved here, which are of great scientific and practical interest. The main protected objects are the water–swamp ecosystem of Lake Agh-Gol, places of mass nesting, places of rest during migration, and wintering for waterfowl and coastal birds.

Name: Zangazur National Park named after Academician Hasan Aliyev
Year of foundation: 2009
Area (hectare): 42797,4
Location: Lesser Caucasus, Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic
Brief description: Zangazur National Park was created on 25 November 2009 in an area of 42797,4 hectares on the base of Ordubad National Park named after Academician Hasan Aliyev and Shahbuz State Nature Reserve in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. It was named after Academician Hasan Aliyev who is considered as a founder of ecology in Azerbaijan. Adjoining the National Park is Ordubad State Nature Sanctuary with an area of 27870 hectares. The objective pursued in the creation of Zangazur National Park was to protect different components of the area which has a distinctive climate, terrain, and other physical geographical features as well as various animal species including endemics and species of fauna that are typical to this area. The park is also charged with the task to facilitate environmental monitoring and promote education and tourism. Zangazur’s range of mountains reaching 3200 meters on average is the highest range of the Lesser Caucasus. The highest peak of the range making 3906 meters is located in the National Park. The last third part of the Zangazur range is Soyug Dagh (Cold Mountain) which also belongs to the National Park’s area. The height of Soyug Dagh varies within a range of 2000 to 3000 meters. This part of the mountain slopes down for 12 km to south and west. It comprises steep slopes with precipices and narrow spring valleys. Eroded rocks are widespread here. In Soyuq Dagh, ancient glacial relief declines and finally disappears downwards. Zangazur National Park is a mountainous area. Its climate is generally cold characterized by dry summer. The mean temperature is -30 °C to -10 °C in January and 10 °C 25 °C in July. The annual precipitation is 300-800 mm. The watercourse network of the region is composed of Gilanchay, Vanadchay, Duylunchay, Aylishchay, Ganzachay, Kotamchay, Kilitchay, and Ordubadchay rivers. They are fed by rains and melting snow. The Araz River forms the border with Iran. The landscape of the area varies in type. Mainly, dull brown, grassland dull brown, alluvial grassland, mountainous forest, turf-type mountainous grassland terrains prevail in the area. Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic is a distinguished place in Azerbaijan for the richness of its ornitofauna. There are 217 bird species and subspecies in the region of which 15 species are listed in the Red Data Book. These are Levant Sparrowhawk, great white pelican, dalmatian pelican, white-tailed eagle, lammergeyer, short-toed eagle, great bustard, little bustards, and other birds. Six species of amphibians occur in the area of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. Thirty-eight species and subspecies of reptiles are found in Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. Of them, five are turtles, twelve species, and sub-species of snakes. Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise, Caucasian pit viper, Trans-Caucasian rat snake are all under protection and listed in the Red Data Book. Sixty-two mammal species and subspecies occur in Nakhchivan. Thirty-two of them are found in the Zangazur National Park and Ordubad State Nature Sanctuary. These are blazilius horseshoe bat, southern horseshoe bat, porcupine, manul, bezoar goat, Caucasian muflon to mention a few. The park is a habitat for a number of carnivorous animals such as leopard, wolf, jackal, fox, striped hyena, badger, wild cat, and other predators numbering 12 species in total. Zangazur National Park is also rich in rare plants, 77 grow in the Park’s area. Iris elegantissima, Himantoglossum formosum, Dorema glabrum, and other plants can be found here. Along with the diverse flora and fauna, the Zangazur National Park is the place where there are a lot of natural and historical monuments.

Name: Altyaghach National Park
Year of foundation: 2004
Area (hectare): 11035
Location: Within the territory of Khyzy and Siyazan administrative districts.
Brief description: Altiaghaj National Park was established in August 2004. The National Park is located in Khizi and Siyazan regions. It was created in an area of 11 035 hectares on the base of Altiaghaj State Natural Reserve and adjacent state-owned forest lands. The main objective is the creation of the National Park is to ensure the conservation of basic components of the natural landscape of the southeastern slopes of the Greater Caucasus, the rehabilitation of flora and fauna species, the implementation of environmental education along with tourism and recreation. Brown forest mountainous, humic carbon forest mountainous, steppe grassland mountainous, and other types of terrains are found in the National Park’s area. The climate here is moderately warm and dry both in winter and summer. The largest river in the area is Atachay. Taking its origin at a height of 1870 meters in Dubrar Mountain the Atachay river flows into the Caspian Sea. The major part of the park is composed of areas covered with forests. The main tree species are Caucasian oak, Caucasian hornbeam, oriental beech, ash, and birch. Shrub species occurring in the area include hawthorn, dog-rose, and blackberry. Roe deer, brown bear, wild boar, lynx, raccoon, hair, fox, squirrel, wolf of mammals and pheasant, partridge, eagle, thrush, goatsucker, ring-dove of birds are found in the National Park.

Name: Shahdagh National Park
Year of foundation: 2006
Area (hectare): 115895
Location: territory of Guba, Gusar, Ismayilli, Gabala, Oghuz, and Shamakhi districts
Brief description: Shahdag National Park was established in accordance with the decree of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan № 1814, dated December 8, 2006. Its territory is primarily 115895 ha. Ismayilli and Pirgulu State Nature Reserves consist of 21014 ha, state forest foundation lands located in the administrative territories of Guba, Gusar, Ismayilli, Gabala, Oghuz, and Shamakhi regions compose 81797 ha and useless summer pastures in mountains situated in the heights of boundaries of those regions compose 13084 ha of the National Park. The territory of the National Park was enlarged 14613 ha with the decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Azerbaijan № 193/S, dated July 8, 2010, hence its territory was reached 130508 ha. The aim of the establishment of the Shahdag National Park is rehabilitation, maintenance, and management of global mountain forests and pasture ecosystems located in high mountainous areas including various endemic and endangered species and transboundary migratory animals, preservation of fertile soil layer, protection, reproduction, and enrichment of fauna and flora species characteristic for the area, as well as regulation of natural complex stability, the offer of all necessary facilities for the implementation of scientific-research works, environmental monitoring, environmental enlightenment of population and provision of development of ecotourism in the territory which has great tourism potential. The height of the National Park territory has substantially caused its climatic diversity, fertility of flora soils, and richness of animal planet. The forests located in the territory are popular with rich, fascinating, and picturesque landscapes. Vertical fluctuation and scatter of relief, complex climate conditions, and soil lay have triggered a pretty great diversity of flora.

Name: Samur-Yalama National Park
Year of foundation: 2012
Area (hectare): 11772,45
Location: District of Khachmaz
Brief description: Samur-Yalama National Park was established in the administrative territory of the district of Khachmaz by the Order of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan of November 5, 2012. The Park covers 11772.45 hectares given in the appendix land plan of the public forest fund lands in the administrative territory of the district of Khachmaz. The National Park is rich in such herbs as dog rose, garlic, St John’s wort, blooming sally, melissa. Soil types are meadow-forest, chestnut, and light chestnut. Meadows and shrubberies are widespread. Flat forests are encountered as well. The major representatives of the animal kingdom in Khachmaz are a feral pig, raccoon, pheasant, partridge, and so on. Coastal waters are rich in fish. There are thermal and mineral springs. Khachmaz is favorable for hunting and fishing. The Association of Hunters operates here and “Guealan Goelue” Reserve is under the Association.